Walk the train
Pick a system. Then pick a dose point.
Four treatment trains, 32 dose points between them. Each one names what is happening at that stage, what goes wrong there, and the chemistry that gets fed to prevent it.
Select a dose point to see the chemistry. Arrow keys move upstream and downstream.
Dose point 1 of 8 · Municipal Drinking Water
Raw water intake & pretreatment
Water arrives with whatever the season gave it. Algae blooms, seasonal turnover, manganese, and taste and odor events all land here first.
What goes wrong hereAn algal bloom upstream produces geosmin and MIB at nanogram levels. Customers taste it long before any instrument flags it, and the phones start ringing.
What gets dosed and why
- Potassium permanganatePre-oxidant handling manganese, iron, and early stage taste and odor before it reaches the plant.
- Powdered activated carbonAdsorbs geosmin and MIB during a bloom. Dosed seasonally, which makes it a storage and handling problem as much as a chemistry one.
- Copper sulfate and chelated copperReservoir and intake algae control at the source rather than downstream.
- Sodium hypochloriteZebra mussel and biofouling control on intake structures and screens.
- Hydrogen peroxideAlgae knockdown without adding copper to sediment.
5 products dosed at this point
Dose point 2 of 8 · Municipal Drinking Water
Coagulation
Colloids in raw water carry a negative charge and repel each other, which is why they never settle. Coagulant chemistry neutralizes that charge so particles can start to collide.
What goes wrong hereThe wrong coagulant or the wrong dose shows up two stages later as carryover into the filters, and by then you are chasing it backward through the plant.
What gets dosed and why
- Aluminum sulfateThe traditional workhorse. Inexpensive and well understood, but consumes alkalinity and performs poorly in cold water.
- Polyaluminum chloridePrehydrolyzed, so it works across a wider pH and temperature range, consumes far less alkalinity, and produces meaningfully less sludge.
- Ferric chloride and ferric sulfateStronger performance in cold water and much better organic carbon removal, which matters where disinfection byproducts are the constraint.
- Cationic polymerCoagulant aid that cuts the metal salt dose, which cuts sludge volume and disposal cost at the same time.
- Caustic soda, lime, or soda ashReplaces the alkalinity the coagulant consumed, holding pH where the coagulant actually works.
5 products dosed at this point
Dose point 3 of 8 · Municipal Drinking Water
Flocculation
Destabilized particles are gently stirred so they collide and build into floc large and dense enough to settle in a reasonable footprint.
What goes wrong herePinpoint floc that will not grow, or floc so fragile it shears apart in the flocculator and reappears as turbidity in the clarifier.
What gets dosed and why
- Anionic polyacrylamideBridges microfloc into large settleable floc. Molecular weight and charge density are the two dials that matter.
- Nonionic polymerBridging where water chemistry makes anionic polymer underperform.
- BentoniteWeighting agent in low turbidity water, giving floc something to build around.
- Ballasted media systemsMicrosand and magnetite processes for high rate clarification in a small footprint.
4 products dosed at this point
Dose point 4 of 8 · Municipal Drinking Water
Sedimentation & clarification
Floc settles out and sludge is drawn off the bottom. This is where the solids loading on every downstream process gets decided.
What goes wrong hereBlanket upset after a storm event, with solids carrying over into filters that were sized assuming clarification did its job.
What gets dosed and why
- Settling aid polymerBlanket stability and improved solids capture during turbidity spikes.
- Sludge conditioning polymerThickens the underflow so less water goes to the residuals handling side.
- Coagulant trimFine adjustment at the clarifier when raw water changes faster than the primary dose can follow.
3 products dosed at this point
Dose point 5 of 8 · Municipal Drinking Water
Filtration
The final particle barrier, and the process the regulator watches most closely because turbidity is the surrogate for pathogen removal.
What goes wrong hereEarly breakthrough shortens runs, drives backwash water use up, and pushes the plant toward its turbidity limit at the worst time.
What gets dosed and why
- Filter aid polymerStrengthens floc at the media surface so it is captured rather than driven deeper into the bed.
- Sodium hypochloriteBiological growth control in the media, preventing mudballing and short runs.
- Caustic sodapH trim ahead of filtration to optimize particle capture.
- Membrane cleaning chemistryAcid and alkaline clean-in-place cycles where the plant uses membrane filtration.
4 products dosed at this point
Dose point 6 of 8 · Municipal Drinking Water
Disinfection
Primary disinfection inactivates pathogens. Secondary disinfection maintains a residual all the way to the last tap in the system.
What goes wrong hereEvery disinfectant creates byproducts. Chasing a CT credit at the plant can put you over a THM or HAA limit at the far end of the distribution system.
What gets dosed and why
- Sodium hypochloritePrimary and secondary disinfection. Degrades in storage, so turnover and temperature control are part of the purchase.
- Sodium chloriteGenerates chlorine dioxide on site, effective at high pH and producing no trihalomethanes.
- Aqua ammonia or ammonium sulfateConverts free chlorine to chloramine, giving a stable residual with far lower regulated byproduct formation.
- Sodium bisulfiteDechlorination where residual has to be removed before discharge or a specific process step.
- Peracetic acidByproduct free disinfection, increasingly used where halogenated byproducts are the binding constraint.
5 products dosed at this point
Dose point 7 of 8 · Municipal Drinking Water
Corrosion control & stabilization
Treated water leaving the plant must be chemically stable, or it will dissolve the distribution system on the way to the customer.
What goes wrong hereLead and copper release from service lines and household plumbing. This is the one water quality failure that ends careers and makes national news.
What gets dosed and why
- OrthophosphateForms a protective lead and copper phosphate film on pipe interiors. The most direct lever a utility has on lead release.
- Blended poly-orthophosphateAdds sequestration for iron and manganese alongside the passivation function.
- Zinc orthophosphateFilm formation with additional protection on galvanized and cementitious surfaces.
- Caustic soda and limepH and alkalinity adjustment to a stable Langelier index, often the first move before any inhibitor.
- Sodium silicateAlternative film former and sequestrant where phosphate discharge limits are a concern.
5 products dosed at this point
Dose point 8 of 8 · Municipal Drinking Water
Fluoridation & finished water
Final additions and the last quality checks before water enters the distribution system.
What goes wrong hereFeed equipment on aggressive chemistry, tight accuracy requirements, and a public that scrutinizes this stage more than any other.
What gets dosed and why
- Fluorosilicic acidThe most common fluoridation source, requiring dedicated corrosion resistant feed and containment.
- Sodium fluorosilicateDry alternative for smaller systems without acid handling capability.
- pH trim chemistryFinal adjustment so water enters distribution exactly where the corrosion control program expects it.
- SequestrantsHold trace iron and manganese in solution so they do not appear as color complaints downstream.
4 products dosed at this point
Select a dose point to see the chemistry. Arrow keys move upstream and downstream.
Dose point 1 of 8 · Municipal Wastewater
Collection system & headworks
Long force mains go septic. Sulfide forms in the slime layer on the pipe wall, then releases at every turbulent point downstream.
What goes wrong hereHydrogen sulfide is a neighbor complaint, a corrosion problem eating concrete manholes, and a genuine safety hazard, all from the same source.
What gets dosed and why
- Calcium nitrateProvides an alternative electron acceptor so sulfate reducing bacteria never produce sulfide in the first place. Prevention rather than treatment.
- Ferric chloride and ferrous chloridePrecipitates sulfide already formed as insoluble iron sulfide.
- Magnesium hydroxideRaises pH so sulfide stays in the dissolved bisulfide form instead of gassing off at turbulence.
- Hydrogen peroxideFast oxidation of existing sulfide at a specific problem point such as a wet well or headworks.
- Odor scrubber chemistryCaustic and hypochlorite for the wet scrubbers at headworks and pump stations.
5 products dosed at this point
Dose point 2 of 8 · Municipal Wastewater
Primary treatment
Settleable solids and floatables are removed before biological treatment, setting the load the aeration basins have to handle.
What goes wrong herePrimary underperforming means the biological process carries a load it was not designed for, which shows up as blower cost and clarifier upset.
What gets dosed and why
- Ferric chlorideChemically enhanced primary treatment, substantially increasing solids and BOD capture ahead of aeration.
- Anionic polymerImproves capture in primary clarifiers, particularly under wet weather flow.
- DefoamersFoam control in channels, splitter boxes, and primary structures.
- AlumAlternative primary coagulant, often selected on sludge handling considerations rather than performance.
4 products dosed at this point
Dose point 3 of 8 · Municipal Wastewater
Biological treatment
The living heart of the plant. Bacteria consume organic load and, with the right conditions, convert ammonia to nitrate and nitrate to nitrogen gas.
What goes wrong hereNitrification consumes a large amount of alkalinity. Run out and pH crashes, nitrification stops, and the ammonia permit goes with it.
What gets dosed and why
- Caustic soda and soda ashAlkalinity supplementation for nitrification. Roughly seven parts alkalinity are consumed per part ammonia oxidized.
- Methanol, glycerin, or acetic acidSupplemental carbon driving denitrification where the influent does not carry enough of its own.
- Micronutrient blendsTrace metals the biology needs, frequently limiting on industrial influent.
- DefoamersControl of nocardia and filamentous foam that otherwise blankets the basin and the walkways.
- Bioaugmentation culturesRecovery after an upset, or specialized populations for hard to degrade influent.
5 products dosed at this point
Dose point 4 of 8 · Municipal Wastewater
Phosphorus removal
Chemical precipitation of phosphorus, alone or alongside biological removal, to hit an increasingly tight permit limit.
What goes wrong herePermits moving toward very low phosphorus limits, where the last fraction of a milligram costs more chemical than everything above it.
What gets dosed and why
- Ferric chlorideThe most common precipitant. Effective and predictable, though it adds significant chemical sludge.
- Aluminum sulfateAlternative precipitant, often selected where iron would interfere downstream.
- Sodium aluminatePrecipitation without consuming alkalinity, useful in low alkalinity plants.
- PolymerCaptures the fine chemical floc that would otherwise pass the clarifier and carry phosphorus with it.
- Multi-point dosing strategySplitting dose between primary, secondary, and tertiary is usually cheaper than a single large dose.
5 products dosed at this point
Dose point 5 of 8 · Municipal Wastewater
Secondary clarification
Biomass is separated from treated water and returned to the process. Everything the plant accomplished biologically can be lost here.
What goes wrong hereFilamentous bulking. Sludge that will not settle, a rising blanket, and solids over the weir into the effluent.
What gets dosed and why
- Anionic and cationic polymersSettling and capture aid during bulking or hydraulic surge events.
- Sodium hypochloriteTargeted RAS chlorination for filamentous control, dosed carefully to avoid harming the rest of the population.
- CoagulantsImproved capture of fine solids and associated phosphorus.
- DefoamersSurface foam control on clarifiers and in RAS wet wells.
4 products dosed at this point
Dose point 6 of 8 · Municipal Wastewater
Tertiary treatment & polishing
Final filtration and advanced treatment where permits require more than secondary treatment can deliver.
What goes wrong hereVery low limits on phosphorus, nitrogen, metals, or emerging contaminants that secondary treatment simply cannot reach.
What gets dosed and why
- Coagulant and polymerLow level phosphorus removal at the filter, chasing the last tenths of a milligram.
- Granular and powdered activated carbonMicropollutant and color removal ahead of discharge.
- OxidantsAdvanced oxidation for specific compounds that biology does not touch.
- Membrane cleaning chemistryAcid and alkaline CIP on tertiary membrane systems.
4 products dosed at this point
Dose point 7 of 8 · Municipal Wastewater
Disinfection & discharge
Pathogen reduction to permit before the effluent reaches the receiving water.
What goes wrong hereChlorine residual is itself toxic to aquatic life, so anything added usually has to be removed again before discharge.
What gets dosed and why
- Sodium hypochloriteConventional effluent disinfection, dosed against a coliform limit.
- Sodium bisulfiteDechlorination to protect the receiving stream, a required second chemical if you use the first.
- Peracetic acidDisinfection with no chlorinated byproducts and no dechlorination step, which changes the whole chemical program.
- pH adjustment chemistryFinal trim to the permitted discharge range.
4 products dosed at this point
Dose point 8 of 8 · Municipal Wastewater
Sludge dewatering & biosolids
Solids handling, where a large share of the plant's entire chemical budget is spent and where hauling cost is decided.
What goes wrong hereEvery additional percent of cake solids is a direct reduction in trucks leaving the site, which is usually the biggest controllable cost at the plant.
What gets dosed and why
- Cationic emulsion polymerThe single largest chemical line item at most plants. Charge density and molecular weight are matched to the sludge, not ordered from a catalog.
- Dry and mannich polymersAlternative delivery forms with different makedown equipment and cost per active pound.
- LimeAlkaline stabilization for Class B biosolids, plus odor and pathogen control.
- Ferric chlorideConditioning ahead of dewatering and struvite control in digesters and downstream piping.
- Odor control chemistryStorage, loadout, and hauling odor management, which is what neighbors actually judge the plant on.
5 products dosed at this point
Select a dose point to see the chemistry. Arrow keys move upstream and downstream.
Dose point 1 of 8 · Industrial Utility Water
Makeup water & clarification
Whatever enters the utility system determines every treatment decision downstream of it.
What goes wrong hereVariable surface water quality feeding equipment that was designed around an annual average that rarely occurs.
What gets dosed and why
- Coagulants and flocculantsTurbidity and organics removal ahead of softening or membranes.
- Softening chemistryLime and soda ash for hardness reduction on hard makeup water.
- Filter aid polymerMedia filter performance and run length.
- BiocidesBiological control in raw water storage, which otherwise seeds everything downstream.
4 products dosed at this point
Dose point 2 of 8 · Industrial Utility Water
Softening & demineralization
Ion exchange removing hardness or producing high purity water for boilers and process use.
What goes wrong hereRegenerant chemistry is aggressive, consumed in large volume, and the waste stream needs neutralizing before it goes anywhere.
What gets dosed and why
- Sodium chlorideSoftener regeneration, bought in bulk and consumed continuously.
- Hydrochloric and sulfuric acidCation resin regeneration in demineralizer trains.
- Caustic sodaAnion resin regeneration, typically at rayon or membrane grade purity.
- Resin cleanersRestore capacity lost to organic and iron fouling before resin is prematurely replaced.
- Neutralization chemistryRegenerant waste pH correction before discharge.
5 products dosed at this point
Dose point 3 of 8 · Industrial Utility Water
Reverse osmosis & membranes
Membrane separation producing high purity water. Efficient, and completely unforgiving about what reaches the membrane surface.
What goes wrong hereA membrane fouled by scale, biology, or a single chlorine excursion is an expensive replacement that a few dollars of chemistry would have prevented.
What gets dosed and why
- AntiscalantsHold calcium carbonate, sulfate, and silica in solution past their saturation point, permitting higher recovery.
- Sodium metabisulfiteRemoves residual chlorine before it reaches the membrane, which polyamide membranes do not survive.
- Acid and alkaline membrane cleanersRestore flux from mineral scale and organic or biological fouling respectively.
- Non-oxidizing biocidesBiofilm control on membrane surfaces where oxidizers cannot be used.
- pH adjustmentFeed pH control to manage carbonate scaling potential.
5 products dosed at this point
Dose point 4 of 8 · Industrial Utility Water
Cooling tower systems
Open recirculating cooling, where evaporation concentrates every dissolved solid in the makeup water and warm water invites biology.
What goes wrong hereThree problems fighting each other at once. Push cycles up to save water and you drive scaling. Add acid to control scale and you risk corrosion. Both problems feed biology.
What gets dosed and why
- PhosphonatesThreshold scale inhibition at far below stoichiometric dose, the backbone of most cooling programs.
- Dispersant polymersKeep suspended solids and precipitated particles mobile rather than depositing on heat transfer surfaces.
- Tolyltriazole and benzotriazoleYellow metal protection, forming a molecular film on copper alloys throughout the system.
- Sodium hypochlorite and stabilized bromineOxidizing biocide programs. Bromine holds up far better at the elevated pH most towers run.
- Isothiazolinone, glutaraldehyde, and DBNPANon-oxidizing biocides alternated with oxidizers to prevent resistant populations and attack established biofilm.
- Sulfuric acidpH control permitting higher cycles of concentration and reducing scaling potential.
6 products dosed at this point
Dose point 5 of 8 · Industrial Utility Water
Boiler feedwater & deaeration
Dissolved oxygen removal before feedwater ever enters the boiler, because oxygen pitting is fast and unforgiving.
What goes wrong hereA deaerator running slightly off spec leaves oxygen in the feedwater, and the damage shows up as pitting in the economizer months later.
What gets dosed and why
- Sodium sulfiteTraditional oxygen scavenger, effective and inexpensive, though it adds dissolved solids.
- DEHA and carbohydrazideVolatile scavengers that add no solids and carry passivating benefit into the condensate system.
- ChelantsHardness control in feedwater where softening is imperfect.
- Neutralizing aminesFeedwater and condensate pH elevation to protect the entire steam cycle.
4 products dosed at this point
Dose point 6 of 8 · Industrial Utility Water
Boiler internal treatment
Chemistry inside the drum, controlling what precipitates and making sure it precipitates as a mobile sludge rather than a deposit.
What goes wrong hereScale on a boiler tube insulates it. The tube overheats, the metal fails, and the outage costs orders of magnitude more than the treatment program.
What gets dosed and why
- Trisodium phosphate and disodium phosphatePrecipitate hardness as a non-adherent sludge that blows down rather than baking onto tubes.
- Polymer dispersantsKeep precipitated solids suspended and mobile for removal via blowdown.
- Caustic sodaBoiler water alkalinity and pH control within the specified operating band.
- ChelantsEDTA and NTA programs holding hardness soluble in high purity systems.
- AntifoamCarryover prevention, since foam in the drum sends solids into the steam.
5 products dosed at this point
Dose point 7 of 8 · Industrial Utility Water
Steam & condensate
The return system, where carbon dioxide dissolves into condensing steam and forms carbonic acid on bare steel.
What goes wrong hereCondensate line corrosion is invisible until a line fails, and every pound of condensate lost is treated water and fuel thrown away.
What gets dosed and why
- Neutralizing aminesMorpholine, cyclohexylamine, and DEAE, blended by distribution ratio to protect near and far points in the system.
- Filming aminesForm a hydrophobic barrier on metal surfaces, protecting against both carbonic acid and oxygen.
- Oxygen scavengersVolatile scavenger carryover protecting the return system against in-leakage.
- System cleanersPre-commissioning and post-repair cleaning before a treatment program is established.
4 products dosed at this point
Dose point 8 of 8 · Industrial Utility Water
Closed loops & glycol systems
Chilled water, hot water, and glycol loops. Low makeup, which means neglect until something fails.
What goes wrong hereA loop nobody has tested in three years, with depleted inhibitor, degraded glycol, and mixed metallurgy quietly corroding.
What gets dosed and why
- Nitrite and molybdate inhibitorsPassivating corrosion protection appropriate to closed systems with minimal makeup.
- AzolesCopper and brass protection in mixed metal loops.
- Inhibited propylene and ethylene glycolFreeze protection with the inhibitor package already in the fluid.
- BiocidesNitrite is a nutrient for some organisms, so closed loops still need biological control.
- pH buffersHold loop pH in the range where the inhibitor works.
5 products dosed at this point
Select a dose point to see the chemistry. Arrow keys move upstream and downstream.
Dose point 1 of 8 · Industrial Process and Discharge
Process water treatment
Water used directly in production, where quality requirements are set by the product rather than by a regulation.
What goes wrong hereA water quality excursion that becomes a product quality problem, discovered downstream after the batch is already made.
What gets dosed and why
- Clarification chemistryCoagulants and flocculants sized to the process requirement rather than a discharge limit.
- Softening and demineralizationHardness and dissolved solids removal to a product driven specification.
- BiocidesBiological control in process water storage and distribution.
- pH control chemistryAcid and caustic to the range the process requires.
4 products dosed at this point
Dose point 2 of 8 · Industrial Process and Discharge
Oil and water separation
Removing free, dispersed, and emulsified oil, usually with three different mechanisms in the same treatment train.
What goes wrong hereEmulsified oil that will not break, carrying through the API separator and the DAF and straight into the discharge sample.
What gets dosed and why
- DemulsifiersBreak stabilized emulsions so oil can coalesce and be physically removed.
- CoagulantsCharge neutralization of the dispersed oil droplet before flotation.
- DAF flocculant polymerBuild a float that the skimmer can actually remove rather than one that resettles.
- DefoamersFoam control in flotation cells and equalization tanks.
4 products dosed at this point
Dose point 3 of 8 · Industrial Process and Discharge
Metals removal
Precipitating dissolved metals to a permit limit, often on a stream whose composition changes with the production schedule.
What goes wrong hereChelated metals that hydroxide precipitation cannot touch, sailing straight through a properly operated system and over the limit.
What gets dosed and why
- Caustic soda and limeHydroxide precipitation, the first approach for most metals and the cheapest when it works.
- Sodium sulfide and organosulfidesSulfide precipitation reaching far lower solubility, and effective against many chelated metals.
- Ferric chlorideCoprecipitation and adsorption, particularly effective for arsenic and selenium.
- Chelant breakersRelease metals bound by EDTA and similar chelants so they can be precipitated at all.
- Flocculant polymerCapture the fine metal hydroxide floc that would otherwise pass the clarifier.
5 products dosed at this point
Dose point 4 of 8 · Industrial Process and Discharge
pH neutralization
Bringing an aggressive waste stream inside the permitted range before it leaves the property.
What goes wrong hereA stream that swings from pH 2 to pH 12 across a production cycle, on equipment sized for an average that never actually occurs.
What gets dosed and why
- Sulfuric acidLowest cost acid for bulk neutralization of alkaline streams.
- Hydrochloric acidUsed where sulfate contribution would cause a downstream problem.
- Caustic sodaFast, clean neutralization of acidic streams with no solids added.
- Lime and magnesium hydroxideSlower and lower cost neutralization with buffering that reduces overshoot on a swinging stream.
- Carbon dioxideSelf-buffering acidification that cannot overshoot below about pH 6, which protects against operator error.
5 products dosed at this point
Dose point 5 of 8 · Industrial Process and Discharge
Chemical oxidation
Destroying compounds that biology will not degrade and physical processes will not remove.
What goes wrong hereA recalcitrant COD load, color, or a specific listed compound that has to be destroyed rather than transferred to another phase.
What gets dosed and why
- Hydrogen peroxideDirect oxidation and the peroxide half of most advanced oxidation processes.
- Ferrous sulfateFenton chemistry, generating hydroxyl radicals for hard to treat organic loads.
- Potassium permanganateSelective oxidation with a visible endpoint, useful for phenolics and sulfide.
- Sodium persulfateActivated persulfate for specific compounds resistant to other oxidants.
- Sodium hypochloriteCyanide destruction and general oxidation in metal finishing waste streams.
5 products dosed at this point
Dose point 6 of 8 · Industrial Process and Discharge
Biological pretreatment
On-site biological treatment ahead of discharge to a municipal system, or in place of it.
What goes wrong hereIndustrial influent that is nutrient starved, temperature swung, and periodically shock loaded by whatever production ran that day.
What gets dosed and why
- Nitrogen and phosphorus supplementsIndustrial waste is usually carbon rich and nutrient poor, which starves the biology.
- Micronutrient blendsTrace metals limiting biological activity on synthetic waste streams.
- Alkalinity supplementsCaustic and soda ash holding pH through nitrification and acid production.
- DefoamersAeration basin foam control, which on industrial waste can be severe.
- BioaugmentationSpecialized cultures for specific compounds and recovery after upset.
5 products dosed at this point
Dose point 7 of 8 · Industrial Process and Discharge
Sludge handling & dewatering
Concentrating and dewatering the solids every one of these processes generates.
What goes wrong hereChemical sludge from metals precipitation dewaters very differently from biological sludge, and one polymer will not serve both.
What gets dosed and why
- Cationic emulsion polymerPrimary conditioning for biological and mixed sludge on belt presses and centrifuges.
- Anionic polymerConditioning of chemical and inorganic sludge, where charge demand runs the other direction.
- Ferric chloride and limeConditioning ahead of pressure filtration, particularly on plate and frame equipment.
- Filter aidsPrecoat and body feed improving cake release and filtrate clarity.
- Sludge odor controlStorage and haul-off odor management on site.
5 products dosed at this point
Dose point 8 of 8 · Industrial Process and Discharge
Zero liquid discharge & reuse
Evaporation, crystallization, and reuse where discharge is restricted or water is scarce.
What goes wrong hereConcentrating every dissolved solid in the stream by design, which drives scaling and foaming to their absolute worst case.
What gets dosed and why
- AntiscalantsScale control in evaporators and crystallizers operating far past normal saturation.
- AntifoamFoam control in evaporator bodies, where carryover contaminates the distillate.
- pH control chemistryManage volatility and scaling potential through the concentration train.
- Cleaning chemistryAcid and alkaline cleaning of heat transfer surfaces on a scheduled cycle.
- Corrosion inhibitorsProtect equipment operating in an extremely concentrated brine.
5 products dosed at this point
Or start with the symptom
You do not have a chemistry problem. You have a symptom.
Operators rarely call asking for a phosphonate. They call because something is foaming, scaling, smelling, or failing a permit. Pick what you are seeing and the dose points that address it will light up on the rail above.
Select a symptom to highlight the relevant dose points in every train.
How Lowe helps
The right product at the wrong dose point is the wrong product.
Water treatment is the one market where the same chemical does completely different jobs depending on where it enters the process. Ferric chloride is a coagulant at the head of a drinking water plant, a sulfide scavenger in a force main, a phosphorus precipitant in an aeration basin, and a sludge conditioner ahead of a press. Tell us the dose point and the problem, and the specification usually writes itself.
1
Tell us the dose pointWhere in the process it feeds, what the water looks like, what problem you are solving, and what the permit or spec requires.2
We check the sourcing pathAvailability, strength and grade, delivery format from drum to bulk, freight, and practical alternates when a product runs tight.3
You get a clear answerA quote, a trial quantity, or a straight explanation of what is realistic. No runaround either way.Full reference
Every dose point on one page.
The complete list, in process order, for anyone who would rather scan than click.
Municipal Drinking Water · step 1
Raw water intake & pretreatment
- Potassium permanganatePre-oxidant handling manganese, iron, and early stage taste and odor before it reaches the plant.
- Powdered activated carbonAdsorbs geosmin and MIB during a bloom. Dosed seasonally, which makes it a storage and handling problem as much as a chemistry one.
- Copper sulfate and chelated copperReservoir and intake algae control at the source rather than downstream.
- Sodium hypochloriteZebra mussel and biofouling control on intake structures and screens.
- Hydrogen peroxideAlgae knockdown without adding copper to sediment.
Municipal Drinking Water · step 2
Coagulation
- Aluminum sulfateThe traditional workhorse. Inexpensive and well understood, but consumes alkalinity and performs poorly in cold water.
- Polyaluminum chloridePrehydrolyzed, so it works across a wider pH and temperature range, consumes far less alkalinity, and produces meaningfully less sludge.
- Ferric chloride and ferric sulfateStronger performance in cold water and much better organic carbon removal, which matters where disinfection byproducts are the constraint.
- Cationic polymerCoagulant aid that cuts the metal salt dose, which cuts sludge volume and disposal cost at the same time.
- Caustic soda, lime, or soda ashReplaces the alkalinity the coagulant consumed, holding pH where the coagulant actually works.
Municipal Drinking Water · step 3
Flocculation
- Anionic polyacrylamideBridges microfloc into large settleable floc. Molecular weight and charge density are the two dials that matter.
- Nonionic polymerBridging where water chemistry makes anionic polymer underperform.
- BentoniteWeighting agent in low turbidity water, giving floc something to build around.
- Ballasted media systemsMicrosand and magnetite processes for high rate clarification in a small footprint.
Municipal Drinking Water · step 4
Sedimentation & clarification
- Settling aid polymerBlanket stability and improved solids capture during turbidity spikes.
- Sludge conditioning polymerThickens the underflow so less water goes to the residuals handling side.
- Coagulant trimFine adjustment at the clarifier when raw water changes faster than the primary dose can follow.
Municipal Drinking Water · step 5
Filtration
- Filter aid polymerStrengthens floc at the media surface so it is captured rather than driven deeper into the bed.
- Sodium hypochloriteBiological growth control in the media, preventing mudballing and short runs.
- Caustic sodapH trim ahead of filtration to optimize particle capture.
- Membrane cleaning chemistryAcid and alkaline clean-in-place cycles where the plant uses membrane filtration.
Municipal Drinking Water · step 6
Disinfection
- Sodium hypochloritePrimary and secondary disinfection. Degrades in storage, so turnover and temperature control are part of the purchase.
- Sodium chloriteGenerates chlorine dioxide on site, effective at high pH and producing no trihalomethanes.
- Aqua ammonia or ammonium sulfateConverts free chlorine to chloramine, giving a stable residual with far lower regulated byproduct formation.
- Sodium bisulfiteDechlorination where residual has to be removed before discharge or a specific process step.
- Peracetic acidByproduct free disinfection, increasingly used where halogenated byproducts are the binding constraint.
Municipal Drinking Water · step 7
Corrosion control & stabilization
- OrthophosphateForms a protective lead and copper phosphate film on pipe interiors. The most direct lever a utility has on lead release.
- Blended poly-orthophosphateAdds sequestration for iron and manganese alongside the passivation function.
- Zinc orthophosphateFilm formation with additional protection on galvanized and cementitious surfaces.
- Caustic soda and limepH and alkalinity adjustment to a stable Langelier index, often the first move before any inhibitor.
- Sodium silicateAlternative film former and sequestrant where phosphate discharge limits are a concern.
Municipal Drinking Water · step 8
Fluoridation & finished water
- Fluorosilicic acidThe most common fluoridation source, requiring dedicated corrosion resistant feed and containment.
- Sodium fluorosilicateDry alternative for smaller systems without acid handling capability.
- pH trim chemistryFinal adjustment so water enters distribution exactly where the corrosion control program expects it.
- SequestrantsHold trace iron and manganese in solution so they do not appear as color complaints downstream.
Municipal Wastewater · step 1
Collection system & headworks
- Calcium nitrateProvides an alternative electron acceptor so sulfate reducing bacteria never produce sulfide in the first place. Prevention rather than treatment.
- Ferric chloride and ferrous chloridePrecipitates sulfide already formed as insoluble iron sulfide.
- Magnesium hydroxideRaises pH so sulfide stays in the dissolved bisulfide form instead of gassing off at turbulence.
- Hydrogen peroxideFast oxidation of existing sulfide at a specific problem point such as a wet well or headworks.
- Odor scrubber chemistryCaustic and hypochlorite for the wet scrubbers at headworks and pump stations.
Municipal Wastewater · step 2
Primary treatment
- Ferric chlorideChemically enhanced primary treatment, substantially increasing solids and BOD capture ahead of aeration.
- Anionic polymerImproves capture in primary clarifiers, particularly under wet weather flow.
- DefoamersFoam control in channels, splitter boxes, and primary structures.
- AlumAlternative primary coagulant, often selected on sludge handling considerations rather than performance.
Municipal Wastewater · step 3
Biological treatment
- Caustic soda and soda ashAlkalinity supplementation for nitrification. Roughly seven parts alkalinity are consumed per part ammonia oxidized.
- Methanol, glycerin, or acetic acidSupplemental carbon driving denitrification where the influent does not carry enough of its own.
- Micronutrient blendsTrace metals the biology needs, frequently limiting on industrial influent.
- DefoamersControl of nocardia and filamentous foam that otherwise blankets the basin and the walkways.
- Bioaugmentation culturesRecovery after an upset, or specialized populations for hard to degrade influent.
Municipal Wastewater · step 4
Phosphorus removal
- Ferric chlorideThe most common precipitant. Effective and predictable, though it adds significant chemical sludge.
- Aluminum sulfateAlternative precipitant, often selected where iron would interfere downstream.
- Sodium aluminatePrecipitation without consuming alkalinity, useful in low alkalinity plants.
- PolymerCaptures the fine chemical floc that would otherwise pass the clarifier and carry phosphorus with it.
- Multi-point dosing strategySplitting dose between primary, secondary, and tertiary is usually cheaper than a single large dose.
Municipal Wastewater · step 5
Secondary clarification
- Anionic and cationic polymersSettling and capture aid during bulking or hydraulic surge events.
- Sodium hypochloriteTargeted RAS chlorination for filamentous control, dosed carefully to avoid harming the rest of the population.
- CoagulantsImproved capture of fine solids and associated phosphorus.
- DefoamersSurface foam control on clarifiers and in RAS wet wells.
Municipal Wastewater · step 6
Tertiary treatment & polishing
- Coagulant and polymerLow level phosphorus removal at the filter, chasing the last tenths of a milligram.
- Granular and powdered activated carbonMicropollutant and color removal ahead of discharge.
- OxidantsAdvanced oxidation for specific compounds that biology does not touch.
- Membrane cleaning chemistryAcid and alkaline CIP on tertiary membrane systems.
Municipal Wastewater · step 7
Disinfection & discharge
- Sodium hypochloriteConventional effluent disinfection, dosed against a coliform limit.
- Sodium bisulfiteDechlorination to protect the receiving stream, a required second chemical if you use the first.
- Peracetic acidDisinfection with no chlorinated byproducts and no dechlorination step, which changes the whole chemical program.
- pH adjustment chemistryFinal trim to the permitted discharge range.
Municipal Wastewater · step 8
Sludge dewatering & biosolids
- Cationic emulsion polymerThe single largest chemical line item at most plants. Charge density and molecular weight are matched to the sludge, not ordered from a catalog.
- Dry and mannich polymersAlternative delivery forms with different makedown equipment and cost per active pound.
- LimeAlkaline stabilization for Class B biosolids, plus odor and pathogen control.
- Ferric chlorideConditioning ahead of dewatering and struvite control in digesters and downstream piping.
- Odor control chemistryStorage, loadout, and hauling odor management, which is what neighbors actually judge the plant on.
Industrial Utility Water · step 1
Makeup water & clarification
- Coagulants and flocculantsTurbidity and organics removal ahead of softening or membranes.
- Softening chemistryLime and soda ash for hardness reduction on hard makeup water.
- Filter aid polymerMedia filter performance and run length.
- BiocidesBiological control in raw water storage, which otherwise seeds everything downstream.
Industrial Utility Water · step 2
Softening & demineralization
- Sodium chlorideSoftener regeneration, bought in bulk and consumed continuously.
- Hydrochloric and sulfuric acidCation resin regeneration in demineralizer trains.
- Caustic sodaAnion resin regeneration, typically at rayon or membrane grade purity.
- Resin cleanersRestore capacity lost to organic and iron fouling before resin is prematurely replaced.
- Neutralization chemistryRegenerant waste pH correction before discharge.
Industrial Utility Water · step 3
Reverse osmosis & membranes
- AntiscalantsHold calcium carbonate, sulfate, and silica in solution past their saturation point, permitting higher recovery.
- Sodium metabisulfiteRemoves residual chlorine before it reaches the membrane, which polyamide membranes do not survive.
- Acid and alkaline membrane cleanersRestore flux from mineral scale and organic or biological fouling respectively.
- Non-oxidizing biocidesBiofilm control on membrane surfaces where oxidizers cannot be used.
- pH adjustmentFeed pH control to manage carbonate scaling potential.
Industrial Utility Water · step 4
Cooling tower systems
- PhosphonatesThreshold scale inhibition at far below stoichiometric dose, the backbone of most cooling programs.
- Dispersant polymersKeep suspended solids and precipitated particles mobile rather than depositing on heat transfer surfaces.
- Tolyltriazole and benzotriazoleYellow metal protection, forming a molecular film on copper alloys throughout the system.
- Sodium hypochlorite and stabilized bromineOxidizing biocide programs. Bromine holds up far better at the elevated pH most towers run.
- Isothiazolinone, glutaraldehyde, and DBNPANon-oxidizing biocides alternated with oxidizers to prevent resistant populations and attack established biofilm.
- Sulfuric acidpH control permitting higher cycles of concentration and reducing scaling potential.
Industrial Utility Water · step 5
Boiler feedwater & deaeration
- Sodium sulfiteTraditional oxygen scavenger, effective and inexpensive, though it adds dissolved solids.
- DEHA and carbohydrazideVolatile scavengers that add no solids and carry passivating benefit into the condensate system.
- ChelantsHardness control in feedwater where softening is imperfect.
- Neutralizing aminesFeedwater and condensate pH elevation to protect the entire steam cycle.
Industrial Utility Water · step 6
Boiler internal treatment
- Trisodium phosphate and disodium phosphatePrecipitate hardness as a non-adherent sludge that blows down rather than baking onto tubes.
- Polymer dispersantsKeep precipitated solids suspended and mobile for removal via blowdown.
- Caustic sodaBoiler water alkalinity and pH control within the specified operating band.
- ChelantsEDTA and NTA programs holding hardness soluble in high purity systems.
- AntifoamCarryover prevention, since foam in the drum sends solids into the steam.
Industrial Utility Water · step 7
Steam & condensate
- Neutralizing aminesMorpholine, cyclohexylamine, and DEAE, blended by distribution ratio to protect near and far points in the system.
- Filming aminesForm a hydrophobic barrier on metal surfaces, protecting against both carbonic acid and oxygen.
- Oxygen scavengersVolatile scavenger carryover protecting the return system against in-leakage.
- System cleanersPre-commissioning and post-repair cleaning before a treatment program is established.
Industrial Utility Water · step 8
Closed loops & glycol systems
- Nitrite and molybdate inhibitorsPassivating corrosion protection appropriate to closed systems with minimal makeup.
- AzolesCopper and brass protection in mixed metal loops.
- Inhibited propylene and ethylene glycolFreeze protection with the inhibitor package already in the fluid.
- BiocidesNitrite is a nutrient for some organisms, so closed loops still need biological control.
- pH buffersHold loop pH in the range where the inhibitor works.
Industrial Process & Discharge · step 1
Process water treatment
- Clarification chemistryCoagulants and flocculants sized to the process requirement rather than a discharge limit.
- Softening and demineralizationHardness and dissolved solids removal to a product driven specification.
- BiocidesBiological control in process water storage and distribution.
- pH control chemistryAcid and caustic to the range the process requires.
Industrial Process & Discharge · step 2
Oil and water separation
- DemulsifiersBreak stabilized emulsions so oil can coalesce and be physically removed.
- CoagulantsCharge neutralization of the dispersed oil droplet before flotation.
- DAF flocculant polymerBuild a float that the skimmer can actually remove rather than one that resettles.
- DefoamersFoam control in flotation cells and equalization tanks.
Industrial Process & Discharge · step 3
Metals removal
- Caustic soda and limeHydroxide precipitation, the first approach for most metals and the cheapest when it works.
- Sodium sulfide and organosulfidesSulfide precipitation reaching far lower solubility, and effective against many chelated metals.
- Ferric chlorideCoprecipitation and adsorption, particularly effective for arsenic and selenium.
- Chelant breakersRelease metals bound by EDTA and similar chelants so they can be precipitated at all.
- Flocculant polymerCapture the fine metal hydroxide floc that would otherwise pass the clarifier.
Industrial Process & Discharge · step 4
pH neutralization
- Sulfuric acidLowest cost acid for bulk neutralization of alkaline streams.
- Hydrochloric acidUsed where sulfate contribution would cause a downstream problem.
- Caustic sodaFast, clean neutralization of acidic streams with no solids added.
- Lime and magnesium hydroxideSlower and lower cost neutralization with buffering that reduces overshoot on a swinging stream.
- Carbon dioxideSelf-buffering acidification that cannot overshoot below about pH 6, which protects against operator error.
Industrial Process & Discharge · step 5
Chemical oxidation
- Hydrogen peroxideDirect oxidation and the peroxide half of most advanced oxidation processes.
- Ferrous sulfateFenton chemistry, generating hydroxyl radicals for hard to treat organic loads.
- Potassium permanganateSelective oxidation with a visible endpoint, useful for phenolics and sulfide.
- Sodium persulfateActivated persulfate for specific compounds resistant to other oxidants.
- Sodium hypochloriteCyanide destruction and general oxidation in metal finishing waste streams.
Industrial Process & Discharge · step 6
Biological pretreatment
- Nitrogen and phosphorus supplementsIndustrial waste is usually carbon rich and nutrient poor, which starves the biology.
- Micronutrient blendsTrace metals limiting biological activity on synthetic waste streams.
- Alkalinity supplementsCaustic and soda ash holding pH through nitrification and acid production.
- DefoamersAeration basin foam control, which on industrial waste can be severe.
- BioaugmentationSpecialized cultures for specific compounds and recovery after upset.
Industrial Process & Discharge · step 7
Sludge handling & dewatering
- Cationic emulsion polymerPrimary conditioning for biological and mixed sludge on belt presses and centrifuges.
- Anionic polymerConditioning of chemical and inorganic sludge, where charge demand runs the other direction.
- Ferric chloride and limeConditioning ahead of pressure filtration, particularly on plate and frame equipment.
- Filter aidsPrecoat and body feed improving cake release and filtrate clarity.
- Sludge odor controlStorage and haul-off odor management on site.
Industrial Process & Discharge · step 8
Zero liquid discharge & reuse
- AntiscalantsScale control in evaporators and crystallizers operating far past normal saturation.
- AntifoamFoam control in evaporator bodies, where carryover contaminates the distillate.
- pH control chemistryManage volatility and scaling potential through the concentration train.
- Cleaning chemistryAcid and alkaline cleaning of heat transfer surfaces on a scheduled cycle.
- Corrosion inhibitorsProtect equipment operating in an extremely concentrated brine.