Walk the process
Pick a route. Then pick a step.
Five process routes, 32 steps between them. Each one names what is happening at that point, what goes wrong there, and the raw materials that address it.
Select a step to see the chemistry. Arrow keys move forward and back through the process.
Step 1 of 7 · Frit Batch and Smelting
Batch raw materials & weighing
The glass formers and stabilizers that make up most of the batch by weight, weighed to a recipe that has no tolerance for drift.
What goes wrong hereA silica or feldspar lot with a different alkali or iron content, which shifts fired color and melting behavior on a frit that was supposed to be identical to the last one.
What gets used and why
- Silica, quartz and flintThe network former. Everything else in the batch exists to modify what silica does on its own.
- Feldspar and nepheline syeniteDeliver alumina and alkali together, improving durability while still contributing flux.
- Whiting and dolomiteCalcium and magnesium stabilizers preventing the alkali from producing a water soluble glass.
- WollastoniteCalcium silicate delivering both lime and silica with no volatile loss on heating.
- Talc and magnesium carbonateMagnesia source adjusting expansion, melting range, and matte character.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 2 of 7 · Frit Batch and Smelting
Alkali fluxes
Silica melts near 1700 C on its own. Fluxes exist so the melt happens at a temperature a furnace and a fuel budget can live with.
What goes wrong hereEvery degree of melting temperature is fuel, refractory wear, and emissions, which makes the flux package the largest energy lever in the plant.
What gets used and why
- Soda ashThe primary flux by tonnage. Drops melting temperature dramatically and is the largest single batch chemical in most operations.
- PotashAlternative alkali giving a longer working range and different color response, common in specialty and tableware.
- Lithium carbonateVery powerful flux at low addition, improving melting rate while lowering thermal expansion at the same time.
- Spodumene and petaliteMineral lithium sources delivering lithia with alumina and silica, often at better cost than the carbonate.
- Sodium and potassium nitrateFlux plus oxidizer, controlling redox state and color development in the melt.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 3 of 7 · Frit Batch and Smelting
Borate systems
Boron is the one material that lowers melting temperature and improves thermal shock resistance and chemical durability at the same time.
What goes wrong hereBorates are expensive and volatile at melting temperature, so overshooting the addition costs money at purchase and again at the stack.
What gets used and why
- Boric acidBoron source without sodium, used when the alkali balance is already set by other batch materials.
- Borax pentahydrateThe workhorse borate. Lower water content than the decahydrate, so less furnace energy goes to driving off moisture.
- Borax decahydrateUsed where dissolution rate and handling behavior favor the higher hydrate.
- Anhydrous boraxMaximum boron per unit weight with no water to remove, favored where energy cost dominates.
- ColemaniteCalcium borate mineral supplying boron and calcium in one addition at a lower cost per unit boron.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 4 of 7 · Frit Batch and Smelting
Opacifiers & colorants
Opacity and color, developed either in the smelt or added later at the mill depending on the effect required.
What goes wrong hereColorants and opacifiers are the most expensive line in most formulas, so every point of over-addition goes straight against margin.
What gets used and why
- ZirconZirconium silicate, the dominant opacifier and usually the single most expensive component in a glaze formula.
- Zirconia and tin oxidePremium opacification where zircon whiteness or performance is not sufficient.
- Titanium dioxide, anatase gradeOpacification in porcelain enamel cover coats, where the anatase form specifically is required.
- Cobalt oxide and carbonateBlue development at very low addition, and one of the most price volatile materials in the industry.
- Chrome, iron, manganese, copper and nickel oxidesThe base colorant palette, with fired result depending as much on redox and flux as on the oxide itself.
- Zirconium based stainsPraseodymium yellow, vanadium blue, and iron coral, giving stability where raw oxides would not survive the firing.
6 raw materials at this step
Step 5 of 7 · Frit Batch and Smelting
Fining & redox control
Removing the bubbles the batch reaction generated, which is done by deliberately generating larger bubbles that sweep the small ones out.
What goes wrong hereSeed and blister carried through the smelt into the frit, which becomes a pinhole or a bubble in the fired glaze layer.
What gets used and why
- Sodium sulfateSalt cake. The standard fining agent, decomposing at temperature to release gas that carries fine bubbles to the surface.
- Sodium nitrateOxidizer supporting fining and controlling the redox condition that determines fired color.
- CarbonReducing agent balancing the redox state of the melt against the oxidizers.
- Antimony and cerium compoundsHigh temperature fining in technical and optical quality glass.
- Fluorspar and silicofluoridesFluidity and fining aid, plus fluoride opacification, both subject to emissions constraints.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 6 of 7 · Frit Batch and Smelting
Smelting & furnace operation
The melt itself, where batch becomes glass and where most of the plant's energy and emissions sit.
What goes wrong hereBoron and fluoride volatilizing out of the melt, which is a raw material loss, a stack emission, and a refractory attack problem simultaneously.
What gets used and why
- Caustic sodaScrubber chemistry capturing acid gases and volatile boron from furnace off-gas.
- Lime and limestoneDry and semi-dry scrubbing for fluoride and sulfur capture.
- Refractory raw materialsFurnace lining materials, which for a frit smelter face a uniquely aggressive melt.
- Combustion and utility chemistryBoiler and cooling support around the furnace island.
4 raw materials at this step
Step 7 of 7 · Frit Batch and Smelting
Quench, drying & sizing
Pouring molten glass into water to shatter it into a friable frit, then drying and sizing it for the mill.
What goes wrong hereQuench water carrying dissolved alkali and borate back into the frit surface, which changes milling behavior and slip chemistry downstream.
What gets used and why
- Treated quench waterWater quality controls what leaches from the frit surface during quench and how it behaves in the mill.
- Anticaking agentsFree flow through silos, bagging, and handling in humid conditions.
- Corrosion inhibitorsProtect quench tanks and handling equipment against alkaline, borate bearing water.
- Water treatment chemistryRecirculating quench water clarification and scale control.
4 raw materials at this step
Select a step to see the chemistry. Arrow keys move forward and back through the process.
Step 1 of 7 · Milling and Slip Preparation
Milling & grinding
Reducing frit and raw materials to the particle size distribution the application method requires.
What goes wrong hereOver-milling wastes energy and produces a slip that will not behave. Under-milling shows up as texture and pinholes after firing.
What gets used and why
- Grinding aidsImprove mill throughput and prevent fines agglomerating and coating the media.
- Sodium silicateDeflocculation during milling, keeping the charge fluid at high solids so the mill grinds instead of churning.
- DispersantsParticle separation during grinding, which is what actually determines the final size distribution.
- AntifoamAir entrainment control during wet milling and transfer.
4 raw materials at this step
Step 2 of 7 · Milling and Slip Preparation
Deflocculants & rheology control
Getting a high solids slip to pour, pump, and spray at a viscosity the application equipment can handle.
What goes wrong hereA slip that thickens overnight or thins across a shift, so the applied weight drifts and nobody knows why the fired result changed.
What gets used and why
- Sodium silicateThe classic deflocculant, usually paired with soda ash in casting slips where the ratio is tuned to the clay body.
- Sodium tripolyphosphateStrong deflocculation with good tolerance for variable water chemistry.
- Sodium hexametaphosphateDeflocculation plus sequestration of hardness that would otherwise flocculate the slip.
- Sodium polyacrylatePolymeric deflocculant giving lower viscosity at higher solids than the inorganic options.
- LignosulfonateLower cost dispersion where the performance requirement does not justify a polyacrylate.
- Soda ashWorks with sodium silicate as the second half of the standard casting slip deflocculant pair.
6 raw materials at this step
Step 3 of 7 · Milling and Slip Preparation
Flocculants & suspension adjustment
Adjusting a slip in the other direction, adding structure so solids stay suspended and the glaze hangs on the ware.
What goes wrong hereA glaze that settles into a hard pack in the tank overnight, so the first pieces of the morning get a different coating than the last pieces of yesterday.
What gets used and why
- Magnesium sulfateEpsom salt. The standard bench flocculant for building suspension and thixotropy in a glaze that has gone too fluid.
- Calcium chlorideAlternative flocculant where sulfate would interfere with the glaze chemistry.
- BentoniteSuspension and green strength at low addition, the most widely used suspension aid in the industry.
- AttapulgiteSuspension in slips where bentonite would swell too aggressively or affect fired result.
- Xanthan gumOrganic suspension with strong shear thinning behavior, burning out completely on firing.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 4 of 7 · Milling and Slip Preparation
Binders & green strength
Holding unfired ware and applied glaze together through handling, drying, and loading into the kiln.
What goes wrong hereGreen ware that chips at the handling station or glaze that dusts off a dry biscuit before it ever reaches the kiln.
What gets used and why
- Carboxymethyl celluloseThe dominant glaze binder. Suspension, adhesion, and green strength in one addition, burning out cleanly.
- Polyvinyl alcoholHigher green strength for pressed and handled ware, with clean burnout.
- Polyethylene glycolBinder and plasticizer combination in pressing granulate and technical bodies.
- Methylcellulose and HPMCWater retention and extrusion behavior, especially in extruded and plastic forming.
- DextrinLow cost binder for glazes and engobes where CMC performance is more than required.
- Acrylic emulsionsPolymer binder where higher green strength and water resistance are needed before firing.
6 raw materials at this step
Step 5 of 7 · Milling and Slip Preparation
Preservation & slip shelf life
A water based slip full of organic binder is a growth medium, and the bacteria eat the binder before they spoil the product.
What goes wrong hereA slip that thins out over a week for no apparent reason, because the CMC has been enzymatically degraded and the viscosity went with it.
What gets used and why
- IsothiazolinonesBroad spectrum in-can preservation for water based slips and glazes.
- BenzisothiazolinoneLonger term protection in slips stored across seasons rather than days.
- Sodium benzoateLower cost preservation in acidic systems.
- Biocide rotation programsAlternating chemistry so resistant populations do not establish in tanks and lines.
- Tank sanitation chemistryCleaning the tank matters as much as dosing the slip, since biofilm reseeds every new batch.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 6 of 7 · Milling and Slip Preparation
Defoamers & wetting agents
Air in a slip becomes a pinhole in the fired glaze, and poor wetting becomes a crawl.
What goes wrong hereEntrained air from high speed mixing or spray return, which nobody sees in the tank and everybody sees on the fired piece.
What gets used and why
- Silicone defoamersFast air knockdown during milling, mixing, and pumping.
- Non-silicone organic defoamersUsed where silicone carryover would cause a fired surface defect.
- Wetting agentsEven coverage on a dry biscuit or a dusty surface, preventing crawling at the application stage.
- Surfactant blendsApplication behavior in spray, dip, and waterfall systems.
4 raw materials at this step
Step 7 of 7 · Milling and Slip Preparation
Slip QC & batch water
Specific gravity, viscosity, thixotropy, and pH, checked every batch, against water that changes with the season.
What goes wrong herePlant water hardness shifting between summer and winter, which changes deflocculant demand on a recipe nobody has altered.
What gets used and why
- Treated batch waterHardness and dissolved solids directly change deflocculant demand and slip behavior.
- pH control chemistryHold slip pH where the deflocculant and the binder both work.
- SequestrantsBuffer against seasonal water hardness swings so the recipe stays constant.
- Standard solutions and lab reagentsBench testing supporting batch release and troubleshooting.
4 raw materials at this step
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Step 1 of 6 · Glaze Application and Firing
Application: spray, dip & waterfall
Getting a consistent weight of glaze onto every piece, at line speed, across a shape that is rarely simple.
What goes wrong hereApplied weight drifting across a run, which shows up after firing as color variation between pieces that were supposed to match.
What gets used and why
- Wetting agentsEven coverage on biscuit and on previously glazed surfaces without beading or fisheye.
- Rheology modifiersSag and run control on vertical surfaces and around edges.
- DefoamersAir control in recirculating waterfall and spray return systems.
- Antistatic and application aidsConsistent transfer in electrostatic and dry application systems.
4 raw materials at this step
Step 2 of 6 · Glaze Application and Firing
Engobes, underglaze & decoration
Color layers between body and glaze, where expansion mismatch between layers becomes a defect after firing.
What goes wrong hereAn engobe with different shrinkage from the body underneath it, which crazes or peels once the piece cools.
What gets used and why
- Ceramic stains and pigmentsColor development stable through the firing cycle and compatible with the covering glaze.
- Clays and kaolinBody and suspension in engobe formulation.
- BindersAdhesion and green strength on the applied decorative layer.
- Frit additionsAdjust the maturing temperature of the engobe to match the body and glaze around it.
4 raw materials at this step
Step 3 of 6 · Glaze Application and Firing
Digital & screen printing
Inkjet decoration, now the dominant decorating route in tile, with a completely different chemistry from traditional glazing.
What goes wrong hereNozzle blockage or pigment settling in the ink, which stops a printer that the entire line is timed around.
What gets used and why
- Glycol ethers and estersInk vehicle solvents controlling drying rate and jetting behavior at the nozzle.
- DispersantsKeep milled ceramic pigment stable in suspension so it does not settle in the ink system.
- Ceramic pigmentsMilled to very tight particle size, since anything oversize is a blocked nozzle.
- Screen and rotary printing mediaVehicle systems for traditional decorating still running alongside digital.
- Cleaning solventsPrinthead and system flush chemistry between colors and shutdowns.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 4 of 6 · Glaze Application and Firing
Drying
Removing water before firing, at a rate the piece can survive without cracking.
What goes wrong hereBinder migration to the surface during fast drying, leaving a weak core and a hard skin that cracks in preheat.
What gets used and why
- Glycerin and propylene glycolHumectants slowing surface drying so moisture leaves evenly through the section.
- Binders with controlled migrationSelection that resists moving with the water front during drying.
- Drying aidsEven moisture removal in complex and thick sections.
- Antifungal treatmentsProtection of green ware held in humid conditions before firing.
4 raw materials at this step
Step 5 of 6 · Glaze Application and Firing
Firing & kiln operation
Everything the formulation was designed to do happens on a schedule measured in minutes, and there is no correcting it afterward.
What goes wrong hereCrawling, pinholing, and crazing, which trace back to application, binder burnout, and expansion mismatch respectively rather than to the kiln.
What gets used and why
- Kiln furniture washAlumina, zircon, and kaolin coatings preventing ware from sticking to setters and rollers.
- Colloidal silicaBinder holding kiln wash on vertical and overhead furniture surfaces through thermal cycling.
- Refractory coatingsKiln lining protection and reduced heat loss.
- Setter and separator materialsAlumina and zircon separators for stacked and supported firing.
- Combustion and scrubber chemistryOff-gas treatment where fluoride and boron emissions are regulated.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 6 of 6 · Glaze Application and Firing
Post-fire finishing & treatment
Cutting, polishing, and surface treatment after firing, particularly on tile and technical ware.
What goes wrong herePolished porcelain that stains in service because polishing opened the closed surface the glaze was providing.
What gets used and why
- Polishing compounds and abrasivesSurface finishing on porcelain and technical ceramics.
- Anti-stain sealersClose the porosity opened by polishing, which is what makes polished porcelain serviceable.
- Water repellent treatmentsSilane and siloxane systems for unglazed and through-body products.
- Cleaning chemistryPost-fire cleaning of residue, kiln wash, and handling soil.
- Water treatment for polishing linesRecirculating water clarification, since polishing generates very fine solids.
5 raw materials at this step
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Step 1 of 6 · Porcelain Enamel
Steel preparation & pickling
Enamel bonds metallurgically to steel, and that bond is decided by the surface before any frit is applied.
What goes wrong hereInadequate cleaning or pickling, which produces an adherence failure that looks like a frit problem and is not one.
What gets used and why
- Alkaline cleanersOil and drawing compound removal, the first step and the one most often shortchanged.
- Sulfuric acidPickling to remove scale and create the surface profile the enamel needs.
- Nickel sulfateNickel flash deposition, one of the primary adherence promoters in conventional systems.
- NeutralizersPost-pickle neutralization preventing acid carryover into the enamel slip.
- Rust inhibitorsFlash rust protection between pickling and enameling, which is a narrow window.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 2 of 6 · Porcelain Enamel
Ground coat frit & adherence
The bonding layer, formulated specifically to develop a metallurgical bond with the steel underneath it.
What goes wrong herePoor adherence, which is not visible until the part is impacted or thermally cycled and the enamel lets go in sheets.
What gets used and why
- Cobalt oxide and carbonateThe primary adherence oxide, driving the interfacial reaction that bonds enamel to steel.
- Nickel oxideWorks alongside cobalt to promote adherence, often at lower cost per unit effect.
- Manganese compoundsSupporting adherence oxide and color contribution in ground coats.
- Borax and boric acidPrimary fluxes in the ground coat frit, setting the maturing temperature.
- Feldspar and silicaGlass former and expansion control matched to the steel substrate.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 3 of 6 · Porcelain Enamel
Mill additions & slip control
The enamel slip is a suspension of milled frit and clay in water, and its behavior is set entirely by the electrolyte package.
What goes wrong hereA slip that sets up in the tank or applies at the wrong weight, both of which are electrolyte problems rather than frit problems.
What gets used and why
- ClaySuspension and green strength, the primary mill addition by weight after the frit itself.
- Potassium chlorideSet control electrolyte adjusting slip behavior and application weight.
- Magnesium carbonateSet and rheology control in the mill addition package.
- Sodium nitriteCorrosion inhibition protecting the steel while the wet slip sits on it before firing.
- BoraxSlip set control and suspension adjustment in the mill addition.
- Gums and organic bindersGreen strength and edge coverage on complex shapes.
6 raw materials at this step
Step 4 of 6 · Porcelain Enamel
Application
Wet spray, dip, flow coat, and electrostatic dry powder, each with different chemistry requirements.
What goes wrong hereUneven coverage on edges and corners, where the enamel is thinnest and the part will fail first in service.
What gets used and why
- Wetting agentsEven coverage on a pickled steel surface without pulling away from edges.
- Rheology modifiersSag control on vertical surfaces during flow and dip application.
- Electrostatic additivesCharge acceptance and transfer efficiency in dry powder application.
- DefoamersAir control in recirculating wet application systems.
4 raw materials at this step
Step 5 of 6 · Porcelain Enamel
Firing & fishscale control
Fusing the enamel to the steel, and the point where hydrogen dissolved in the steel becomes a long term problem.
What goes wrong hereFishscale. Hydrogen escaping through fired enamel weeks or months after shipment, popping small flakes off a part that left the plant perfect.
What gets used and why
- Degassing steel gradesEnameling grade steel selection is the primary defense, before any chemistry is applied.
- Ground coat formulationFrit chemistry providing hydrogen permeability so it escapes rather than accumulating at the interface.
- Kiln furniture washPrevent sticking and contamination during firing.
- Firing atmosphere controlOxidizing conditions supporting adherence development.
- Scrubber chemistryFluoride and boron capture on furnace off-gas.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 6 of 6 · Porcelain Enamel
Cover coat, color & finishing
The visible layer, where opacity, color, and surface quality are judged by a consumer standing in a showroom.
What goes wrong hereColor variation between parts of the same assembly, which is invisible in the plant and obvious once the appliance is built.
What gets used and why
- Titanium dioxide, anatase gradeThe standard cover coat opacifier, where the anatase form specifically is required for whiteness.
- Ceramic stains and pigmentsColor development stable through the cover coat firing cycle.
- ZirconAlternative opacification with different whiteness and acid resistance behavior.
- Frit and flux systemsMaturing temperature matched to the ground coat underneath it.
- Cleaning and touch-up chemistryFinishing and defect repair before shipment.
5 raw materials at this step
Select a step to see the chemistry. Arrow keys move forward and back through the process.
Step 1 of 6 · Ceramic Bodies and Forming
Body preparation & casting slips
Preparing the clay or technical body itself, where deflocculation determines whether the slip can be cast at all.
What goes wrong hereA casting slip that gains viscosity in the mold, so cast time drifts and wall thickness varies across a shift.
What gets used and why
- Sodium silicateThe primary casting slip deflocculant, dosed against the clay body's specific demand.
- Soda ashPaired with sodium silicate, and the ratio between them is tuned to the body rather than fixed.
- Sodium polyacrylatePolymeric deflocculant giving higher casting rate and better rheological stability.
- Barium carbonatePrecipitates soluble sulfates in the clay that would otherwise cause scumming on the fired surface.
- Treated batch waterWater hardness directly changes deflocculant demand, which is why plant water gets treated.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 2 of 6 · Ceramic Bodies and Forming
Spray drying & granulate
Converting slip into a free flowing pressing granulate with controlled moisture and particle size.
What goes wrong hereGranulate that will not flow into a press die uniformly, producing density variation that becomes warpage after firing.
What gets used and why
- Polyvinyl alcoholBinder giving granule integrity and green strength after pressing.
- Polyethylene glycolBinder and plasticizer improving granule deformation under pressing pressure.
- Acrylic emulsionsHigher green strength binder systems for large format and thin bodies.
- DefoamersAir control in the feed slip, since entrained air becomes hollow granules.
- DeflocculantsHigh solids feed to the dryer, which directly cuts the energy cost of drying.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 3 of 6 · Ceramic Bodies and Forming
Pressing & lubricants
Compacting granulate into green ware, where die wear and ejection behavior determine both quality and tooling cost.
What goes wrong hereGreen ware sticking or laminating in the die, producing a defect that only becomes visible after firing.
What gets used and why
- Zinc and calcium stearateInternal and die lubricants improving compaction uniformity and ejection.
- Polyethylene glycolLubricant and binder combination in pressing bodies.
- Wax emulsionsDie wall lubrication reducing tooling wear and ejection force.
- Antistatic agentsGranulate flow and die filling consistency.
- BindersGreen strength for handling between press and kiln.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 4 of 6 · Ceramic Bodies and Forming
Extrusion & plastic forming
Plastic forming of brick, pipe, honeycomb, and technical shapes, where the body has to hold its shape without sagging.
What goes wrong hereLaminations and tearing at the die, or a body too stiff to extrude without excessive pressure and wear.
What gets used and why
- Methylcellulose and HPMCThe standard extrusion aid, providing water retention, lubricity, and wet green strength.
- GlycerinPlasticizer improving extrusion behavior without adding water.
- Oils and lubricantsDie wall lubrication reducing pressure and surface defects.
- BentonitePlasticity in bodies short of natural clay content.
- Deflocculants and flocculantsFine adjustment of body plasticity and stiffness at the pug mill.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 5 of 6 · Ceramic Bodies and Forming
Binder burnout & sintering
Removing everything organic, then densifying what remains. Both stages have to happen in the right order.
What goes wrong hereBinder burning out too fast, which cracks the piece before sintering ever begins, or too slow, which leaves residual carbon in the fired body.
What gets used and why
- Binder systems with clean burnoutSelection is a firing decision as much as a forming decision, since residual carbon becomes a fired defect.
- Sintering aidsLower the densification temperature and control grain growth in technical ceramics.
- Kiln furniture wash and settersAlumina and zircon preventing reaction between ware and support at sintering temperature.
- Atmosphere controlOxidizing and reducing conditions determining both color and phase development.
- Refractory materialsKiln lining and furniture consumed on a replacement cycle.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 6 of 6 · Ceramic Bodies and Forming
Technical & advanced ceramics
Alumina, zirconia, silicon carbide, and electronic ceramics, where purity requirements are an order of magnitude tighter.
What goes wrong hereA trace contaminant in a raw material that would be invisible in tile and is a functional failure in an electronic ceramic.
What gets used and why
- High purity dispersantsStabilize alumina and zirconia suspensions at high solids without contributing contaminants.
- Polyvinyl butyralTape casting binder for multilayer electronic ceramics.
- PlasticizersFlexibility in cast tape so it survives handling and lamination.
- Tape casting solventsAlcohol and ketone systems controlling drying rate and film formation.
- Sintering aids and dopantsGrain boundary chemistry determining electrical and mechanical properties.
5 raw materials at this step
Or start with the defect
Nobody calls about chemistry. They call about a fired result.
The call is never a request for sodium hexametaphosphate. It is crawling, pinholes, crazing, a slip that thickened overnight, or ware that will not survive the handling station. Pick what you are seeing and the steps that address it will light up across every route.
Select a defect to highlight the relevant process steps in every route.
How Lowe helps
Two different purchases wearing the same industry name.
Batch minerals and mill additions are bought by different people, on different terms, for different reasons. Confusing them is how ceramic plants end up over-served on one and neglected on the other.
1
Tell us the step and the bodyWhere it goes in the process, the body or glaze system, firing temperature, batch size, package, and destination.2
We check the sourcing pathAvailability, grade and lot consistency, particle size and hydrate form, freight on heavy materials, and practical alternates.3
You get a clear answerA quote, a trial quantity for a plant test, or a straight explanation of what is realistic. No runaround either way.
Where a distributor is actually worth having.
Silica, feldspar, whiting, and soda ash are bought on tonnage and freight, usually direct, and there is very little a distributor adds to that transaction. We will say so rather than pretend otherwise.
The mill additions are the opposite. Deflocculants, binders, suspending agents, preservatives, defoamers, and lubricants are small dose, high consequence line items where lot consistency decides whether a slip behaves. A CMC that varies batch to batch changes viscosity, changes applied weight, and changes fired result, and the plant spends a week blaming the frit. That is the part of the list worth a real sourcing conversation.
Full reference
Every process step on one page.
The complete list, in process order, for anyone who would rather scan than click.
Frit Batch & Smelting · step 1
Batch raw materials & weighing
- Silica, quartz and flintThe network former. Everything else in the batch exists to modify what silica does on its own.
- Feldspar and nepheline syeniteDeliver alumina and alkali together, improving durability while still contributing flux.
- Whiting and dolomiteCalcium and magnesium stabilizers preventing the alkali from producing a water soluble glass.
- WollastoniteCalcium silicate delivering both lime and silica with no volatile loss on heating.
- Talc and magnesium carbonateMagnesia source adjusting expansion, melting range, and matte character.
Frit Batch & Smelting · step 2
Alkali fluxes
- Soda ashThe primary flux by tonnage. Drops melting temperature dramatically and is the largest single batch chemical in most operations.
- PotashAlternative alkali giving a longer working range and different color response, common in specialty and tableware.
- Lithium carbonateVery powerful flux at low addition, improving melting rate while lowering thermal expansion at the same time.
- Spodumene and petaliteMineral lithium sources delivering lithia with alumina and silica, often at better cost than the carbonate.
- Sodium and potassium nitrateFlux plus oxidizer, controlling redox state and color development in the melt.
Frit Batch & Smelting · step 3
Borate systems
- Boric acidBoron source without sodium, used when the alkali balance is already set by other batch materials.
- Borax pentahydrateThe workhorse borate. Lower water content than the decahydrate, so less furnace energy goes to driving off moisture.
- Borax decahydrateUsed where dissolution rate and handling behavior favor the higher hydrate.
- Anhydrous boraxMaximum boron per unit weight with no water to remove, favored where energy cost dominates.
- ColemaniteCalcium borate mineral supplying boron and calcium in one addition at a lower cost per unit boron.
Frit Batch & Smelting · step 4
Opacifiers & colorants
- ZirconZirconium silicate, the dominant opacifier and usually the single most expensive component in a glaze formula.
- Zirconia and tin oxidePremium opacification where zircon whiteness or performance is not sufficient.
- Titanium dioxide, anatase gradeOpacification in porcelain enamel cover coats, where the anatase form specifically is required.
- Cobalt oxide and carbonateBlue development at very low addition, and one of the most price volatile materials in the industry.
- Chrome, iron, manganese, copper and nickel oxidesThe base colorant palette, with fired result depending as much on redox and flux as on the oxide itself.
- Zirconium based stainsPraseodymium yellow, vanadium blue, and iron coral, giving stability where raw oxides would not survive the firing.
Frit Batch & Smelting · step 5
Fining & redox control
- Sodium sulfateSalt cake. The standard fining agent, decomposing at temperature to release gas that carries fine bubbles to the surface.
- Sodium nitrateOxidizer supporting fining and controlling the redox condition that determines fired color.
- CarbonReducing agent balancing the redox state of the melt against the oxidizers.
- Antimony and cerium compoundsHigh temperature fining in technical and optical quality glass.
- Fluorspar and silicofluoridesFluidity and fining aid, plus fluoride opacification, both subject to emissions constraints.
Frit Batch & Smelting · step 6
Smelting & furnace operation
- Caustic sodaScrubber chemistry capturing acid gases and volatile boron from furnace off-gas.
- Lime and limestoneDry and semi-dry scrubbing for fluoride and sulfur capture.
- Refractory raw materialsFurnace lining materials, which for a frit smelter face a uniquely aggressive melt.
- Combustion and utility chemistryBoiler and cooling support around the furnace island.
Frit Batch & Smelting · step 7
Quench, drying & sizing
- Treated quench waterWater quality controls what leaches from the frit surface during quench and how it behaves in the mill.
- Anticaking agentsFree flow through silos, bagging, and handling in humid conditions.
- Corrosion inhibitorsProtect quench tanks and handling equipment against alkaline, borate bearing water.
- Water treatment chemistryRecirculating quench water clarification and scale control.
Milling & Slip Preparation · step 1
Milling & grinding
- Grinding aidsImprove mill throughput and prevent fines agglomerating and coating the media.
- Sodium silicateDeflocculation during milling, keeping the charge fluid at high solids so the mill grinds instead of churning.
- DispersantsParticle separation during grinding, which is what actually determines the final size distribution.
- AntifoamAir entrainment control during wet milling and transfer.
Milling & Slip Preparation · step 2
Deflocculants & rheology control
- Sodium silicateThe classic deflocculant, usually paired with soda ash in casting slips where the ratio is tuned to the clay body.
- Sodium tripolyphosphateStrong deflocculation with good tolerance for variable water chemistry.
- Sodium hexametaphosphateDeflocculation plus sequestration of hardness that would otherwise flocculate the slip.
- Sodium polyacrylatePolymeric deflocculant giving lower viscosity at higher solids than the inorganic options.
- LignosulfonateLower cost dispersion where the performance requirement does not justify a polyacrylate.
- Soda ashWorks with sodium silicate as the second half of the standard casting slip deflocculant pair.
Milling & Slip Preparation · step 3
Flocculants & suspension adjustment
- Magnesium sulfateEpsom salt. The standard bench flocculant for building suspension and thixotropy in a glaze that has gone too fluid.
- Calcium chlorideAlternative flocculant where sulfate would interfere with the glaze chemistry.
- BentoniteSuspension and green strength at low addition, the most widely used suspension aid in the industry.
- AttapulgiteSuspension in slips where bentonite would swell too aggressively or affect fired result.
- Xanthan gumOrganic suspension with strong shear thinning behavior, burning out completely on firing.
Milling & Slip Preparation · step 4
Binders & green strength
- Carboxymethyl celluloseThe dominant glaze binder. Suspension, adhesion, and green strength in one addition, burning out cleanly.
- Polyvinyl alcoholHigher green strength for pressed and handled ware, with clean burnout.
- Polyethylene glycolBinder and plasticizer combination in pressing granulate and technical bodies.
- Methylcellulose and HPMCWater retention and extrusion behavior, especially in extruded and plastic forming.
- DextrinLow cost binder for glazes and engobes where CMC performance is more than required.
- Acrylic emulsionsPolymer binder where higher green strength and water resistance are needed before firing.
Milling & Slip Preparation · step 5
Preservation & slip shelf life
- IsothiazolinonesBroad spectrum in-can preservation for water based slips and glazes.
- BenzisothiazolinoneLonger term protection in slips stored across seasons rather than days.
- Sodium benzoateLower cost preservation in acidic systems.
- Biocide rotation programsAlternating chemistry so resistant populations do not establish in tanks and lines.
- Tank sanitation chemistryCleaning the tank matters as much as dosing the slip, since biofilm reseeds every new batch.
Milling & Slip Preparation · step 6
Defoamers & wetting agents
- Silicone defoamersFast air knockdown during milling, mixing, and pumping.
- Non-silicone organic defoamersUsed where silicone carryover would cause a fired surface defect.
- Wetting agentsEven coverage on a dry biscuit or a dusty surface, preventing crawling at the application stage.
- Surfactant blendsApplication behavior in spray, dip, and waterfall systems.
Milling & Slip Preparation · step 7
Slip QC & batch water
- Treated batch waterHardness and dissolved solids directly change deflocculant demand and slip behavior.
- pH control chemistryHold slip pH where the deflocculant and the binder both work.
- SequestrantsBuffer against seasonal water hardness swings so the recipe stays constant.
- Standard solutions and lab reagentsBench testing supporting batch release and troubleshooting.
Glaze Application & Firing · step 1
Application: spray, dip & waterfall
- Wetting agentsEven coverage on biscuit and on previously glazed surfaces without beading or fisheye.
- Rheology modifiersSag and run control on vertical surfaces and around edges.
- DefoamersAir control in recirculating waterfall and spray return systems.
- Antistatic and application aidsConsistent transfer in electrostatic and dry application systems.
Glaze Application & Firing · step 2
Engobes, underglaze & decoration
- Ceramic stains and pigmentsColor development stable through the firing cycle and compatible with the covering glaze.
- Clays and kaolinBody and suspension in engobe formulation.
- BindersAdhesion and green strength on the applied decorative layer.
- Frit additionsAdjust the maturing temperature of the engobe to match the body and glaze around it.
Glaze Application & Firing · step 3
Digital & screen printing
- Glycol ethers and estersInk vehicle solvents controlling drying rate and jetting behavior at the nozzle.
- DispersantsKeep milled ceramic pigment stable in suspension so it does not settle in the ink system.
- Ceramic pigmentsMilled to very tight particle size, since anything oversize is a blocked nozzle.
- Screen and rotary printing mediaVehicle systems for traditional decorating still running alongside digital.
- Cleaning solventsPrinthead and system flush chemistry between colors and shutdowns.
Glaze Application & Firing · step 4
Drying
- Glycerin and propylene glycolHumectants slowing surface drying so moisture leaves evenly through the section.
- Binders with controlled migrationSelection that resists moving with the water front during drying.
- Drying aidsEven moisture removal in complex and thick sections.
- Antifungal treatmentsProtection of green ware held in humid conditions before firing.
Glaze Application & Firing · step 5
Firing & kiln operation
- Kiln furniture washAlumina, zircon, and kaolin coatings preventing ware from sticking to setters and rollers.
- Colloidal silicaBinder holding kiln wash on vertical and overhead furniture surfaces through thermal cycling.
- Refractory coatingsKiln lining protection and reduced heat loss.
- Setter and separator materialsAlumina and zircon separators for stacked and supported firing.
- Combustion and scrubber chemistryOff-gas treatment where fluoride and boron emissions are regulated.
Glaze Application & Firing · step 6
Post-fire finishing & treatment
- Polishing compounds and abrasivesSurface finishing on porcelain and technical ceramics.
- Anti-stain sealersClose the porosity opened by polishing, which is what makes polished porcelain serviceable.
- Water repellent treatmentsSilane and siloxane systems for unglazed and through-body products.
- Cleaning chemistryPost-fire cleaning of residue, kiln wash, and handling soil.
- Water treatment for polishing linesRecirculating water clarification, since polishing generates very fine solids.
Porcelain Enamel · step 1
Steel preparation & pickling
- Alkaline cleanersOil and drawing compound removal, the first step and the one most often shortchanged.
- Sulfuric acidPickling to remove scale and create the surface profile the enamel needs.
- Nickel sulfateNickel flash deposition, one of the primary adherence promoters in conventional systems.
- NeutralizersPost-pickle neutralization preventing acid carryover into the enamel slip.
- Rust inhibitorsFlash rust protection between pickling and enameling, which is a narrow window.
Porcelain Enamel · step 2
Ground coat frit & adherence
- Cobalt oxide and carbonateThe primary adherence oxide, driving the interfacial reaction that bonds enamel to steel.
- Nickel oxideWorks alongside cobalt to promote adherence, often at lower cost per unit effect.
- Manganese compoundsSupporting adherence oxide and color contribution in ground coats.
- Borax and boric acidPrimary fluxes in the ground coat frit, setting the maturing temperature.
- Feldspar and silicaGlass former and expansion control matched to the steel substrate.
Porcelain Enamel · step 3
Mill additions & slip control
- ClaySuspension and green strength, the primary mill addition by weight after the frit itself.
- Potassium chlorideSet control electrolyte adjusting slip behavior and application weight.
- Magnesium carbonateSet and rheology control in the mill addition package.
- Sodium nitriteCorrosion inhibition protecting the steel while the wet slip sits on it before firing.
- BoraxSlip set control and suspension adjustment in the mill addition.
- Gums and organic bindersGreen strength and edge coverage on complex shapes.
Porcelain Enamel · step 4
Application
- Wetting agentsEven coverage on a pickled steel surface without pulling away from edges.
- Rheology modifiersSag control on vertical surfaces during flow and dip application.
- Electrostatic additivesCharge acceptance and transfer efficiency in dry powder application.
- DefoamersAir control in recirculating wet application systems.
Porcelain Enamel · step 5
Firing & fishscale control
- Degassing steel gradesEnameling grade steel selection is the primary defense, before any chemistry is applied.
- Ground coat formulationFrit chemistry providing hydrogen permeability so it escapes rather than accumulating at the interface.
- Kiln furniture washPrevent sticking and contamination during firing.
- Firing atmosphere controlOxidizing conditions supporting adherence development.
- Scrubber chemistryFluoride and boron capture on furnace off-gas.
Porcelain Enamel · step 6
Cover coat, color & finishing
- Titanium dioxide, anatase gradeThe standard cover coat opacifier, where the anatase form specifically is required for whiteness.
- Ceramic stains and pigmentsColor development stable through the cover coat firing cycle.
- ZirconAlternative opacification with different whiteness and acid resistance behavior.
- Frit and flux systemsMaturing temperature matched to the ground coat underneath it.
- Cleaning and touch-up chemistryFinishing and defect repair before shipment.
Ceramic Bodies & Forming · step 1
Body preparation & casting slips
- Sodium silicateThe primary casting slip deflocculant, dosed against the clay body's specific demand.
- Soda ashPaired with sodium silicate, and the ratio between them is tuned to the body rather than fixed.
- Sodium polyacrylatePolymeric deflocculant giving higher casting rate and better rheological stability.
- Barium carbonatePrecipitates soluble sulfates in the clay that would otherwise cause scumming on the fired surface.
- Treated batch waterWater hardness directly changes deflocculant demand, which is why plant water gets treated.
Ceramic Bodies & Forming · step 2
Spray drying & granulate
- Polyvinyl alcoholBinder giving granule integrity and green strength after pressing.
- Polyethylene glycolBinder and plasticizer improving granule deformation under pressing pressure.
- Acrylic emulsionsHigher green strength binder systems for large format and thin bodies.
- DefoamersAir control in the feed slip, since entrained air becomes hollow granules.
- DeflocculantsHigh solids feed to the dryer, which directly cuts the energy cost of drying.
Ceramic Bodies & Forming · step 3
Pressing & lubricants
- Zinc and calcium stearateInternal and die lubricants improving compaction uniformity and ejection.
- Polyethylene glycolLubricant and binder combination in pressing bodies.
- Wax emulsionsDie wall lubrication reducing tooling wear and ejection force.
- Antistatic agentsGranulate flow and die filling consistency.
- BindersGreen strength for handling between press and kiln.
Ceramic Bodies & Forming · step 4
Extrusion & plastic forming
- Methylcellulose and HPMCThe standard extrusion aid, providing water retention, lubricity, and wet green strength.
- GlycerinPlasticizer improving extrusion behavior without adding water.
- Oils and lubricantsDie wall lubrication reducing pressure and surface defects.
- BentonitePlasticity in bodies short of natural clay content.
- Deflocculants and flocculantsFine adjustment of body plasticity and stiffness at the pug mill.
Ceramic Bodies & Forming · step 5
Binder burnout & sintering
- Binder systems with clean burnoutSelection is a firing decision as much as a forming decision, since residual carbon becomes a fired defect.
- Sintering aidsLower the densification temperature and control grain growth in technical ceramics.
- Kiln furniture wash and settersAlumina and zircon preventing reaction between ware and support at sintering temperature.
- Atmosphere controlOxidizing and reducing conditions determining both color and phase development.
- Refractory materialsKiln lining and furniture consumed on a replacement cycle.
Ceramic Bodies & Forming · step 6
Technical & advanced ceramics
- High purity dispersantsStabilize alumina and zirconia suspensions at high solids without contributing contaminants.
- Polyvinyl butyralTape casting binder for multilayer electronic ceramics.
- PlasticizersFlexibility in cast tape so it survives handling and lamination.
- Tape casting solventsAlcohol and ketone systems controlling drying rate and film formation.
- Sintering aids and dopantsGrain boundary chemistry determining electrical and mechanical properties.