Walk the process
Pick a route. Then pick a step.
Five process routes, 37 steps between them. Each one names what is happening at that point, what goes wrong there, and the raw materials that prevent it.
Select a step to see the chemistry. Arrow keys move forward and back through the process.
Step 1 of 8 · Electronics Assembly
Substrate & surface preparation
Copper oxidizes the moment it is exposed. Whatever is on the pad when solder arrives determines whether the joint forms at all.
What goes wrong hereA board that sat in humid storage, an OSP finish that has degraded, or hand oils from an operator. The flux gets blamed for a surface problem it was never sized to fix.
What gets used and why
- IsopropanolBoard, stencil, and tooling cleaning ahead of print. The most consumed single chemical on most assembly floors.
- Glycol ether cleanersHeavier soil and residue removal where alcohol alone leaves a film.
- Weak organic acidsLight oxide removal on copper and OSP finishes without attacking the laminate.
- SaponifiersAlkaline chemistry converting rosin and oils into rinsable soaps during pre-clean.
4 raw materials at this step
Step 2 of 8 · Electronics Assembly
Solder paste flux vehicle
Solder paste is metal powder suspended in a flux vehicle, and the vehicle is doing four jobs at once: oxide removal, tack, rheology, and residue control.
What goes wrong herePaste that slumps after print, dries out on the stencil, or leaves a residue that fails an electrochemical migration test three months into field service.
What gets used and why
- Gum rosin and hydrogenated rosinVehicle and oxide barrier. Hydrogenated grades are lighter in color, more stable, and less prone to darkening at reflow.
- Hydrogenated castor oilThixotrope giving the paste shear thinning behavior. It prints through a fine aperture and then stops moving.
- Adipic, succinic and glutaric acidOrganic acid activators that strip oxide at reflow and then decompose, which is what makes a no-clean residue benign.
- Amine hydrohalide saltsHalide activation where speed matters more than residue, still the choice on difficult finishes.
- Terpineol and glycol ethersSolvent set controlling open time, tack life, and how forgiving the paste is on a slow line.
- Nonionic surfactantsWetting and slump control in the printed deposit.
6 raw materials at this step
Step 3 of 8 · Electronics Assembly
Printing & dispensing
The paste has to release cleanly from a stencil aperture that keeps getting smaller as components shrink.
What goes wrong hereInsufficient transfer efficiency on fine pitch, clogged apertures partway through a shift, and slump that becomes a bridge at reflow.
What gets used and why
- Solvent balanceEvaporation rate set so the paste survives an idle stencil without drying into the aperture.
- Thixotropic agentsHold the deposit shape between print and reflow, which is what prevents slump.
- Stencil wipe solventsIsopropanol and engineered blends for automatic under-stencil wiping.
- HumectantsSlow surface skinning on pastes that sit exposed between boards.
4 raw materials at this step
Step 4 of 8 · Electronics Assembly
Reflow
Everything the flux was designed to do happens in about ninety seconds, in a specific order, at specific temperatures.
What goes wrong hereActivator that burns off before the solder melts leaves an unprotected surface, and you get dewetting or graping on the exact parts you cannot afford to rework.
What gets used and why
- Activator packageChosen by decomposition temperature so activity peaks when the solder is molten, not before.
- Rosin and resin systemsRe-form a barrier over the cleaned surface, preventing reoxidation during the ramp.
- AntioxidantsProtect the flux vehicle itself from degrading in the reflow oven.
- Solvent residualsWhatever has not evaporated by preheat becomes a void, so the solvent choice is a voiding decision.
4 raw materials at this step
Step 5 of 8 · Electronics Assembly
Wave & selective soldering
Liquid flux applied by spray or foam, then the assembly meets a wave of molten solder for a few seconds.
What goes wrong hereInsufficient flux coverage in a plated through hole means an incomplete barrel fill, which is a joint that passes visual inspection and fails in the field.
What gets used and why
- Isopropanol and ethanolCarrier solvents in traditional low solids fluxes, delivering activator and flashing off at preheat.
- Water and glycol carriersVOC free alternatives, requiring more preheat energy but eliminating solvent handling.
- Weak organic acidsThe active system in most no-clean liquid fluxes.
- Rosin and resinHigher solids fluxes where residue tolerance allows and reliability margin is wanted.
- SurfactantsAtomization in spray fluxers and controlled bubble structure in foam fluxers.
- Corrosion inhibitorsProtect the residue left behind on a board that will never be cleaned.
6 raw materials at this step
Step 6 of 8 · Electronics Assembly
Rework & hand soldering
Manual work on assemblies that already cost real money, where the flux has to stay exactly where it was placed.
What goes wrong hereA tacky flux that migrates under a component, or a pen flux that leaves residue in a spot nobody can reach to clean.
What gets used and why
- Rosin gel systemsTacky fluxes that hold position on a vertical surface and under a component body.
- ThixotropesPrevent flow away from the joint during preheat.
- Low residue formulationsMinimal solids for work that cannot be cleaned afterward.
- Isopropanol carriersFlux pen and dispensed liquid systems.
4 raw materials at this step
Step 7 of 8 · Electronics Assembly
Cleaning & defluxing
Removing residue that would otherwise cause leakage current, dendrite growth, or a failed ionic contamination test.
What goes wrong hereResidue trapped under a low standoff component, where cleaning chemistry cannot reach and the test cannot see it.
What gets used and why
- SaponifiersAlkaline amine chemistry converting rosin acids into water soluble soaps for aqueous cleaning.
- Glycol ether and modified alcohol blendsEngineered solvent cleaners for no-clean and lead free residues.
- Deionized waterRinse quality is the whole specification, since rinse water residue becomes the contamination.
- Corrosion inhibitorsFlash rust protection on exposed metal between wash and dry.
- DefoamersFoam control in spray-in-air and inline cleaning equipment.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 8 of 8 · Electronics Assembly
Conformal coating & protection
The final barrier over a cleaned assembly, and the step where any residue you missed gets sealed in permanently.
What goes wrong hereCoating that dewets over flux residue, or delaminates later and creates a moisture trap exactly where you were trying to prevent one.
What gets used and why
- Acrylic and silicone coating resinsBarrier systems selected by operating environment and reworkability.
- Coating solventsViscosity and cure profile control for dip, spray, and selective application.
- Adhesion promotersSurface treatment ensuring the coating bonds to laminate and component bodies.
- ThinnersField adjustment of application viscosity.
4 raw materials at this step
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Step 1 of 7 · Brazing and Joining
Joint preparation & degreasing
Brazing filler metal flows by capillary action, and capillary action does not negotiate with grease or oxide.
What goes wrong hereDrawing compound, cutting oil, or a heavy oxide left on the joint. The filler balls up instead of drawing into the gap, and the joint is scrap.
What gets used and why
- Alkaline degreasersBulk oil and drawing compound removal ahead of assembly.
- Nitric and hydrofluoric pickleHeavy oxide and scale removal on stainless and high alloy parts.
- Citric and phosphoric acidMilder oxide removal where aggressive pickling is not warranted.
- IsopropanolFinal wipe before assembly and fixturing.
4 raw materials at this step
Step 2 of 7 · Brazing and Joining
Aluminum brazing flux
Aluminum grows a tenacious oxide instantly, and the oxide melts far above the metal underneath it. Flux is the only reason aluminum brazing works.
What goes wrong hereFlux that is corrosive after braze, or fails to displace oxide on a magnesium bearing alloy, leaving unbrazed fins in a heat exchanger core.
What gets used and why
- Potassium fluoroaluminateThe controlled atmosphere brazing standard. Non-corrosive residue, no post-braze cleaning required.
- Cesium fluoroaluminateHandles magnesium containing alloys that standard fluoroaluminate cannot, at a significant cost premium.
- Suspension thickenersHold flux in stable suspension for spray, flood, and dip application.
- BindersAdhesion to the part between fluxing and furnace entry.
- SurfactantsEven wetting across a complex core rather than beading on the fin stock.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 3 of 7 · Brazing and Joining
Silver & copper brazing flux
Torch, induction, and furnace brazing across HVAC, plumbing, tooling, and general fabrication.
What goes wrong hereFlux exhausted before the joint reaches temperature. The operator holds heat longer, the flux saturates, and oxide comes straight back.
What gets used and why
- Potassium tetrafluoroboratePrimary active in general purpose silver brazing flux, lowering the effective working temperature.
- Potassium bifluorideAggressive oxide removal on difficult base metals and stainless.
- Boric acid and boraxGlass forming components that build the protective molten blanket over the joint.
- Potassium pentaborateExtends the useful temperature range of the flux at the high end.
- Elemental boronHigh temperature flux systems for extended heating cycles.
- Thickeners and humectantsPaste consistency and shelf life, so the jar is still usable months later.
6 raw materials at this step
Step 4 of 7 · Brazing and Joining
Furnace & vacuum brazing
Controlled atmosphere and vacuum work, where the atmosphere replaces most of the flux function but the binders still matter.
What goes wrong hereBinder that outgasses and contaminates a vacuum furnace, or stop-off that migrates and blocks a joint it was never meant to touch.
What gets used and why
- Organic bindersHold filler metal paste in position through handling and heat-up, then burn off cleanly.
- Cellulosic thickenersPaste rheology for dispensed and screened filler metal application.
- Stop-off compoundsAlumina and yttria based barriers preventing filler flow where it is not wanted.
- Solvent carriersApplication viscosity and dry time in dispensing systems.
4 raw materials at this step
Step 5 of 7 · Brazing and Joining
Soft soldering & plumbing
Copper tube, sheet metal, and general soft soldering, now entirely lead free and correspondingly less forgiving.
What goes wrong hereLead free alloys wet more slowly and at higher temperature, so a flux that worked fine for decades suddenly leaves cold joints.
What gets used and why
- Zinc chlorideThe classic aggressive soft solder activator, effective and corrosive enough to require cleaning.
- Ammonium chlorideActivation boost in paste and liquid soft solder fluxes.
- Petrolatum and grease vehiclesTraditional paste carriers holding flux at the joint during heating.
- Organic acid systemsWater soluble alternatives for potable water work where chloride residue is unacceptable.
- ThickenersPaste consistency that stays on a vertical tube joint.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 6 of 7 · Brazing and Joining
Flux paste & cored product manufacture
Making the flux itself, in paste, powder, liquid, and cored wire and rod form.
What goes wrong hereA paste that separates in the jar, a powder that cakes in humid storage, or a cored rod where the fill migrates during drawing.
What gets used and why
- Glycerin and glycolsHumectants preventing paste from drying and skinning in a partly used container.
- ThixotropesSuspension stability so active salts do not settle into a hard pack.
- PreservativesWater based paste and liquid flux protection through a long shelf life.
- Anticaking agentsFree flow in powdered flux through humid storage and handling.
- Deionized waterBatch water, since dissolved hardness will react with active fluoride chemistry.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 7 of 7 · Brazing and Joining
Post-braze cleaning & passivation
Removing corrosive residue and restoring the surface, especially on stainless and on assemblies going into service with water.
What goes wrong hereChloride and fluoride residue left in a joint crevice, quietly corroding from the inside where nothing will find it until it leaks.
What gets used and why
- Nitric and citric acidPassivation of stainless steel, restoring the chromium oxide layer after brazing.
- Alkaline cleanersBulk residue and oil removal before passivation.
- Descaling acidsHeat scale and oxide removal on parts brazed in air.
- Corrosion inhibitorsProtection between cleaning and assembly or coating.
- Deionized waterFinal rinse, where residual conductivity is the acceptance test.
5 raw materials at this step
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Step 1 of 7 · Welding Consumables
Mineral raw material preparation
Welding flux is a mineral formulation. Everything downstream depends on the consistency of what comes in the door.
What goes wrong hereA rutile lot with different particle size distribution changes arc behavior and slag release, and the welders notice before QC does.
What gets used and why
- Rutile and ilmeniteTitania sources controlling arc stability, slag fluidity, and bead appearance.
- Silica and feldsparSlag formers and viscosity control across the whole consumable range.
- FluorsparFluoride source lowering slag basicity effects, and the primary hydrogen control tool in basic consumables.
- Calcium carbonateGas shielding through decomposition, plus basicity contribution in low hydrogen coatings.
- Magnesia, alumina and wollastoniteSlag chemistry and detachability control.
- Talc and micaExtrusion aids and plasticity in electrode coatings.
6 raw materials at this step
Step 2 of 7 · Welding Consumables
Binder systems & agglomeration
Silicate binders hold everything together through extrusion or agglomeration and through the arc.
What goes wrong hereBinder chemistry that draws moisture out of the air, which turns into diffusible hydrogen and then into cracks in the weld.
What gets used and why
- Sodium silicateThe primary binder, chosen by modulus and solids for extrusion and agglomeration behavior.
- Potassium silicateArc stability contribution on alternating current, plus different moisture behavior.
- Lithium silicateSpecialty binder where moisture pickup has to be minimized.
- Process waterBinder dilution and mix consistency, where hardness affects silicate stability.
- ClaysGreen strength and extrusion behavior in coating mixes.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 3 of 7 · Welding Consumables
Submerged arc flux
Bulk flux covering the arc completely. High deposition, high heat input, and heavy consumption per hour of arc time.
What goes wrong hereSlag that will not detach on a multi-pass weld, so the operator chips instead of welding and the whole productivity case collapses.
What gets used and why
- FluorsparBasicity and hydrogen control, the single most important lever on weld metal toughness.
- Manganese oxide and silicaSlag formers controlling viscosity, detachability, and bead shape.
- Alumina and magnesiaRefractory slag components setting melting range.
- FerroalloysFerromanganese, ferrosilicon, and ferrotitanium delivering alloy recovery into the weld pool.
- Sodium and potassium silicateBinder for agglomerated flux, which is where moisture control begins.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 4 of 7 · Welding Consumables
Stick electrode coatings
The coating is a shielding gas generator, a slag former, a deoxidizer, and an arc stabilizer, extruded onto a wire.
What goes wrong hereA moisture exposed low hydrogen electrode. The welder does not know, the weld cracks days later, and the failure analysis costs more than the whole consumable order.
What gets used and why
- CelluloseGas generating coating for deep penetration pipe welding electrodes.
- RutileSmooth arc, easy strike, and excellent bead appearance in general purpose electrodes.
- Calcium carbonate and fluorsparThe basic low hydrogen system delivering weld metal toughness and crack resistance.
- Iron powderDeposition rate and recovery in high efficiency electrodes.
- Sodium and potassium silicateExtrusion binder and arc stabilizer.
- Talc, mica and claysExtrusion lubricity, letting the coating go on concentrically at speed.
6 raw materials at this step
Step 5 of 7 · Welding Consumables
Flux-cored & metal-cored wire
The flux is inside the wire, which means it has to survive drawing without segregating or absorbing moisture.
What goes wrong hereFill migration or moisture pickup inside a sealed wire, invisible until the arc misbehaves halfway through a spool.
What gets used and why
- Rutile fill systemsFast freezing slag for all position welding, the largest volume category.
- Fluorspar and basic fillsLow hydrogen basic wires where toughness and crack resistance drive the specification.
- FerroalloysAlloy delivery and deoxidation from inside the wire.
- Iron powderMetal cored wires trading slag for deposition rate.
- Potassium and sodium compoundsArc stabilizers keeping the arc smooth at low current.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 6 of 7 · Welding Consumables
Ancillaries & anti-spatter
Everything around the arc that decides how much time is spent welding versus cleaning up afterward.
What goes wrong hereSpatter welded onto a finished surface, or an anti-spatter that contaminates the weld zone or ruins paint adhesion later.
What gets used and why
- Silicone and silicone free anti-spatterSurface treatment preventing spatter adhesion. Silicone free is mandatory anywhere the part gets painted.
- Vegetable oil based systemsLower VOC anti-spatter for enclosed shops.
- Nozzle gels and tip dipsProtect consumable contact tips and nozzles from spatter buildup.
- SolventsCarrier and evaporation rate control in sprayed formulations.
- Corrosion inhibitorsProtect cleaned weldments between fabrication and coating.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 7 of 7 · Welding Consumables
Moisture control & storage
Diffusible hydrogen comes from moisture, and moisture comes from storage. This step is where good consumables get ruined.
What goes wrong hereConsumables stored in an unheated shed over a humid summer, then used on a code weld the following week.
What gets used and why
- DesiccantsPackage and holding oven moisture control on low hydrogen product.
- Vapor corrosion inhibitorsProtect wire and rod surfaces in long term storage.
- Hermetic packaging materialsBarrier packaging that maintains as-manufactured moisture levels.
- Rebaking supportControlled reconditioning of electrodes that have been exposed.
4 raw materials at this step
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Step 1 of 8 · Molten Metal and Foundry
Charge melting & cover flux
Molten aluminum oxidizes at the surface continuously, and every bit of oxide is metal you paid for turning into dross.
What goes wrong hereAn uncovered bath losing yield hour after hour, with the loss invisible because it leaves as skim rather than as scrap.
What gets used and why
- Sodium chloride and potassium chlorideThe salt system forming a low melting molten cover that excludes air from the bath.
- CryoliteFluoride addition improving the flux's ability to wet and separate oxide from metal.
- Fluoride saltsBreak the oxide film so entrapped metal droplets coalesce and return to the bath.
- Carbon and charcoal coverReducing cover for copper and brass melting.
- Borax and boric acidGlass forming cover flux in copper alloy and precious metal melting.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 2 of 8 · Molten Metal and Foundry
Drossing & cleaning fluxes
Getting the oxide out while leaving the metal in, which is the difference between skimming dross and skimming money.
What goes wrong hereWet dross carrying twenty or thirty percent free metal straight to the dross bin, on every skim, every shift.
What gets used and why
- Sodium and potassium nitrateExothermic oxidizers generating localized heat so trapped metal drains back into the bath.
- Sodium sulfateExothermic contribution and dross conditioning to a dry, powdery, low metal skim.
- Fluoride saltsBreak the metal to oxide bond so separation actually occurs.
- Chloride salt baseCarrier system delivering the actives across the bath surface.
- Wall cleaning fluxesRemove built-up oxide from furnace walls and hearth, restoring capacity.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 3 of 8 · Molten Metal and Foundry
Degassing & hydrogen removal
Hydrogen dissolves readily in molten aluminum and is nearly insoluble in solid aluminum, so it comes out as porosity during solidification.
What goes wrong hereGas porosity found at final machining, after all the value has been added to the casting.
What gets used and why
- Degassing tablets and granular fluxesGenerate gas bubbles in the melt that collect and remove dissolved hydrogen.
- Nitrogen and argonRotary degassing gas, now the dominant method on high volume operations.
- Chloride salt fluxesCombined degassing and cleaning where rotary equipment is not installed.
- Fluoride additionsImprove bubble distribution and inclusion flotation during the degas cycle.
4 raw materials at this step
Step 4 of 8 · Molten Metal and Foundry
Grain refinement & modification
Structural control of the casting, decided in the ladle rather than at the mold.
What goes wrong hereCoarse grain structure or unmodified silicon needles, both of which destroy mechanical properties in a casting that otherwise looks perfect.
What gets used and why
- Titanium boron master alloysGrain refinement in aluminum, nucleating a fine equiaxed structure.
- Strontium master alloysSilicon modification in aluminum silicon alloys, giving fibrous rather than acicular silicon.
- Sodium salt modifiersLower cost modification with a shorter effective fade time.
- Phosphorus additionsPrimary silicon refinement in hypereutectic alloys.
- Cover fluxProtects the treated bath while modification holds.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 5 of 8 · Molten Metal and Foundry
Alkali & magnesium removal
Removing magnesium, sodium, calcium, and lithium from secondary aluminum to hit a specification.
What goes wrong hereSecondary metal arriving with magnesium well above spec, where the only path to alloy is chemical removal.
What gets used and why
- Chlorine and chloride saltsReact with magnesium to form removable magnesium chloride.
- Magnesium chloride fluxControlled demagging with better handling characteristics than gas chlorination.
- Fluoride fluxesAlkali metal removal, particularly sodium and lithium.
- Cover saltsBath protection during a treatment that agitates the surface heavily.
4 raw materials at this step
Step 6 of 8 · Molten Metal and Foundry
Steel ladle metallurgy
Slag engineering in the ladle, which is where steel chemistry and cleanliness are actually decided.
What goes wrong hereSulfur or inclusion levels that miss the grade, discovered after the heat is tapped and options have run out.
What gets used and why
- LimeThe base of every synthetic ladle slag, driving desulfurization capacity.
- Calcium aluminatePre-fused synthetic slag with a low melting point, forming a working slag fast.
- FluorsparSlag fluidity, letting the slag actually do its job at ladle temperatures.
- Aluminum and ferrosiliconDeoxidation, without which desulfurization does not proceed.
- Calcium carbide and magnesiumHot metal desulfurization ahead of the converter.
- Tundish and ladle coversInsulation and reoxidation protection between ladle and mold.
6 raw materials at this step
Step 7 of 8 · Molten Metal and Foundry
Continuous casting mold powder
Doing four jobs simultaneously in the mold: lubrication, heat transfer control, inclusion absorption, and insulation.
What goes wrong hereA breakout. The most expensive single event in a caster, and mold powder performance is directly implicated in most of them.
What gets used and why
- Wollastonite and cristobaliteBase minerals setting melting behavior and viscosity of the liquid slag film.
- Soda ash and fluorsparFlux components controlling melting point and crystallization behavior.
- Carbon black and graphiteMelting rate control, giving the powder its characteristic layered melting profile.
- Glass fritPre-fused component delivering consistent melting behavior.
- Alumina and magnesiaViscosity and inclusion absorption capacity.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 8 of 8 · Molten Metal and Foundry
Copper, brass & precious metal
Non-ferrous melting where oxygen pickup and zinc loss are the two constant battles.
What goes wrong hereOxygen in copper causing porosity and embrittlement, or zinc fuming out of a brass melt and changing the analysis.
What gets used and why
- Borax and boric acidGlass forming cover flux protecting the bath and absorbing oxide.
- SilicaSlag former and viscosity control in copper alloy melting.
- Phosphor copperDeoxidizer removing dissolved oxygen before casting.
- Charcoal coverReducing atmosphere over the melt.
- Fluoride fluxesOxide dissolution and metal recovery from skims.
5 raw materials at this step
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Step 1 of 7 · Glass, Frit and Ceramic
Batch fluxing agents
Silica melts near 1700 C on its own. Fluxes exist so glass can be made at a temperature a furnace and a fuel budget can survive.
What goes wrong hereEvery degree of melting temperature is fuel, refractory wear, and emissions, so flux chemistry is the single largest energy lever in the plant.
What gets used and why
- Soda ashThe primary flux in commercial glass, dropping melting temperature dramatically at the largest tonnage of any batch material.
- PotashAlternative alkali giving a longer working range, used in specialty and tableware glass.
- Lithium carbonatePowerful flux at low addition, improving melting rate and reducing viscosity at temperature.
- Feldspar and nepheline syeniteDeliver alumina and alkali together, improving durability while still fluxing.
- Calcium and magnesium carbonateStabilizers preventing the soda from making a water soluble glass.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 2 of 7 · Glass, Frit and Ceramic
Borate systems
Boron does something no other flux does. It lowers melting temperature and improves thermal shock resistance and durability at the same time.
What goes wrong hereBorate is expensive and volatile, so overshooting the addition costs money twice, once at purchase and again at the stack.
What gets used and why
- Borax pentahydrateThe workhorse borate source, lower water content than decahydrate so less energy goes to driving off moisture.
- Borax decahydrateUsed where dissolution behavior and handling favor the higher hydrate.
- Boric acidBoron source without the sodium, which matters when the alkali balance is already set.
- Anhydrous boraxMaximum boron per unit weight and no water to remove in the furnace.
- ColemaniteCalcium borate mineral delivering boron and calcium in one addition.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 3 of 7 · Glass, Frit and Ceramic
Fining & refining
Removing the bubbles the batch reaction generated, which requires deliberately generating larger bubbles to sweep them out.
What goes wrong hereSeed and blister in the finished glass, which is a cosmetic defect in container glass and a rejection in optical or display glass.
What gets used and why
- Sodium sulfateThe standard fining agent, decomposing at temperature to release gas that sweeps small bubbles out.
- Sodium nitrateOxidizer supporting fining and controlling redox state and color.
- CarbonReducing agent balancing the redox condition of the melt.
- Antimony and cerium compoundsHigh temperature fining in specialty and technical glass.
- FluorsparFluidity and fining aid, subject to emissions constraints.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 4 of 7 · Glass, Frit and Ceramic
Frit manufacture & milling
Smelting a glass, quenching it to a friable frit, then milling it into the raw material of glazes and enamels.
What goes wrong hereFrit that varies lot to lot in fired appearance, because a small shift in the smelt changes everything downstream at the glaze bench.
What gets used and why
- Alkali and borate batch materialsThe smelt charge, where consistency matters more than any single specification.
- DeflocculantsMilling efficiency and slip rheology in wet milled frit systems.
- Carboxymethyl celluloseSuspension and binding in milled frit slips and glazes.
- Grinding aidsThroughput and particle size distribution control in dry milling.
- Process waterQuench and mill water, where dissolved solids affect slip behavior.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 5 of 7 · Glass, Frit and Ceramic
Glaze & enamel fluxing
Getting a glaze to mature at exactly the firing temperature the body requires, with the right surface and no defects.
What goes wrong hereCrawling, pinholing, and crazing, all of which trace back to flux balance, thermal expansion mismatch, or application defects.
What gets used and why
- Zinc oxidePowerful flux improving gloss and broadening the firing range at mid temperature.
- Barium and strontium carbonateFluxes producing distinctive matte and satin surfaces.
- Lithium carbonateStrong flux at low addition, lowering thermal expansion at the same time.
- Bismuth compoundsLead replacement in low temperature and decorative fluxes.
- Suspension agents and bindersGlaze slip stability, application behavior, and green strength before firing.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 6 of 7 · Glass, Frit and Ceramic
Porcelain enamel
Glass fused to steel, where the enamel has to bond metallurgically to the substrate and survive thermal cycling for decades.
What goes wrong hereFishscale, from hydrogen dissolved in the steel escaping through the fired enamel months after the part shipped.
What gets used and why
- Cobalt and nickel oxideAdherence promoters creating the metallurgical bond between enamel and steel.
- Borax and boric acidPrimary fluxes in ground coat and cover coat frits.
- Clay and electrolytesMill additions controlling slip suspension and application weight.
- Magnesium carbonate and potassium chlorideElectrolyte set controlling slip rheology and set behavior.
- Pickling and neutralizing chemistrySteel surface preparation, which determines adherence more than the frit does.
5 raw materials at this step
Step 7 of 7 · Glass, Frit and Ceramic
Low melting & sealing glass
Sealing frits joining glass, ceramic, and metal at temperatures the components can survive.
What goes wrong hereThermal expansion mismatch. The seal survives firing and fails weeks later on the first real temperature cycle.
What gets used and why
- Bismuth oxideThe primary lead replacement in low temperature sealing glass.
- Vanadium compoundsVery low temperature sealing systems for sensitive assemblies.
- Zinc oxideExpansion and flow adjustment in sealing frit formulation.
- Borate systemsMelting range control at the low end.
- Filler additionsExpansion matching to the substrates being joined.
5 raw materials at this step
Or start with the defect
Nobody calls about flux. They call about a defect.
The call is never a request for potassium tetrafluoroborate. It is voiding, dewetting, dross losses, or a weld that cracked. Pick what you are seeing and the steps that address it will light up across every route.
Select a defect to highlight the relevant process steps in every route.
How Lowe helps
The same molecule, four completely different purchases.
Borax is a silver brazing flux component, a glass batch flux, a porcelain enamel mill addition, and a copper melting cover. Same chemical name, four different grades, particle sizes, hydrate forms, and price points. Tell us the process step and the specification stops being a guess.
1
Tell us the process stepWhere it goes in the process, the base metal or substrate, the temperature it sees, and what defect you are fighting.2
We check the sourcing pathGrade, hydrate form, particle size, purity, package size, lot consistency, and practical alternates when a grade runs tight.3
You get a clear answerA quote, a trial quantity for qualification, or a straight explanation of what is realistic. No runaround either way.Full reference
Every process step on one page.
The complete list, in process order, for anyone who would rather scan than click.
Electronics Assembly · step 1
Substrate & surface preparation
- IsopropanolBoard, stencil, and tooling cleaning ahead of print. The most consumed single chemical on most assembly floors.
- Glycol ether cleanersHeavier soil and residue removal where alcohol alone leaves a film.
- Weak organic acidsLight oxide removal on copper and OSP finishes without attacking the laminate.
- SaponifiersAlkaline chemistry converting rosin and oils into rinsable soaps during pre-clean.
Electronics Assembly · step 2
Solder paste flux vehicle
- Gum rosin and hydrogenated rosinVehicle and oxide barrier. Hydrogenated grades are lighter in color, more stable, and less prone to darkening at reflow.
- Hydrogenated castor oilThixotrope giving the paste shear thinning behavior. It prints through a fine aperture and then stops moving.
- Adipic, succinic and glutaric acidOrganic acid activators that strip oxide at reflow and then decompose, which is what makes a no-clean residue benign.
- Amine hydrohalide saltsHalide activation where speed matters more than residue, still the choice on difficult finishes.
- Terpineol and glycol ethersSolvent set controlling open time, tack life, and how forgiving the paste is on a slow line.
- Nonionic surfactantsWetting and slump control in the printed deposit.
Electronics Assembly · step 3
Printing & dispensing
- Solvent balanceEvaporation rate set so the paste survives an idle stencil without drying into the aperture.
- Thixotropic agentsHold the deposit shape between print and reflow, which is what prevents slump.
- Stencil wipe solventsIsopropanol and engineered blends for automatic under-stencil wiping.
- HumectantsSlow surface skinning on pastes that sit exposed between boards.
Electronics Assembly · step 4
Reflow
- Activator packageChosen by decomposition temperature so activity peaks when the solder is molten, not before.
- Rosin and resin systemsRe-form a barrier over the cleaned surface, preventing reoxidation during the ramp.
- AntioxidantsProtect the flux vehicle itself from degrading in the reflow oven.
- Solvent residualsWhatever has not evaporated by preheat becomes a void, so the solvent choice is a voiding decision.
Electronics Assembly · step 5
Wave & selective soldering
- Isopropanol and ethanolCarrier solvents in traditional low solids fluxes, delivering activator and flashing off at preheat.
- Water and glycol carriersVOC free alternatives, requiring more preheat energy but eliminating solvent handling.
- Weak organic acidsThe active system in most no-clean liquid fluxes.
- Rosin and resinHigher solids fluxes where residue tolerance allows and reliability margin is wanted.
- SurfactantsAtomization in spray fluxers and controlled bubble structure in foam fluxers.
- Corrosion inhibitorsProtect the residue left behind on a board that will never be cleaned.
Electronics Assembly · step 6
Rework & hand soldering
- Rosin gel systemsTacky fluxes that hold position on a vertical surface and under a component body.
- ThixotropesPrevent flow away from the joint during preheat.
- Low residue formulationsMinimal solids for work that cannot be cleaned afterward.
- Isopropanol carriersFlux pen and dispensed liquid systems.
Electronics Assembly · step 7
Cleaning & defluxing
- SaponifiersAlkaline amine chemistry converting rosin acids into water soluble soaps for aqueous cleaning.
- Glycol ether and modified alcohol blendsEngineered solvent cleaners for no-clean and lead free residues.
- Deionized waterRinse quality is the whole specification, since rinse water residue becomes the contamination.
- Corrosion inhibitorsFlash rust protection on exposed metal between wash and dry.
- DefoamersFoam control in spray-in-air and inline cleaning equipment.
Electronics Assembly · step 8
Conformal coating & protection
- Acrylic and silicone coating resinsBarrier systems selected by operating environment and reworkability.
- Coating solventsViscosity and cure profile control for dip, spray, and selective application.
- Adhesion promotersSurface treatment ensuring the coating bonds to laminate and component bodies.
- ThinnersField adjustment of application viscosity.
Brazing & Joining · step 1
Joint preparation & degreasing
- Alkaline degreasersBulk oil and drawing compound removal ahead of assembly.
- Nitric and hydrofluoric pickleHeavy oxide and scale removal on stainless and high alloy parts.
- Citric and phosphoric acidMilder oxide removal where aggressive pickling is not warranted.
- IsopropanolFinal wipe before assembly and fixturing.
Brazing & Joining · step 2
Aluminum brazing flux
- Potassium fluoroaluminateThe controlled atmosphere brazing standard. Non-corrosive residue, no post-braze cleaning required.
- Cesium fluoroaluminateHandles magnesium containing alloys that standard fluoroaluminate cannot, at a significant cost premium.
- Suspension thickenersHold flux in stable suspension for spray, flood, and dip application.
- BindersAdhesion to the part between fluxing and furnace entry.
- SurfactantsEven wetting across a complex core rather than beading on the fin stock.
Brazing & Joining · step 3
Silver & copper brazing flux
- Potassium tetrafluoroboratePrimary active in general purpose silver brazing flux, lowering the effective working temperature.
- Potassium bifluorideAggressive oxide removal on difficult base metals and stainless.
- Boric acid and boraxGlass forming components that build the protective molten blanket over the joint.
- Potassium pentaborateExtends the useful temperature range of the flux at the high end.
- Elemental boronHigh temperature flux systems for extended heating cycles.
- Thickeners and humectantsPaste consistency and shelf life, so the jar is still usable months later.
Brazing & Joining · step 4
Furnace & vacuum brazing
- Organic bindersHold filler metal paste in position through handling and heat-up, then burn off cleanly.
- Cellulosic thickenersPaste rheology for dispensed and screened filler metal application.
- Stop-off compoundsAlumina and yttria based barriers preventing filler flow where it is not wanted.
- Solvent carriersApplication viscosity and dry time in dispensing systems.
Brazing & Joining · step 5
Soft soldering & plumbing
- Zinc chlorideThe classic aggressive soft solder activator, effective and corrosive enough to require cleaning.
- Ammonium chlorideActivation boost in paste and liquid soft solder fluxes.
- Petrolatum and grease vehiclesTraditional paste carriers holding flux at the joint during heating.
- Organic acid systemsWater soluble alternatives for potable water work where chloride residue is unacceptable.
- ThickenersPaste consistency that stays on a vertical tube joint.
Brazing & Joining · step 6
Flux paste & cored product manufacture
- Glycerin and glycolsHumectants preventing paste from drying and skinning in a partly used container.
- ThixotropesSuspension stability so active salts do not settle into a hard pack.
- PreservativesWater based paste and liquid flux protection through a long shelf life.
- Anticaking agentsFree flow in powdered flux through humid storage and handling.
- Deionized waterBatch water, since dissolved hardness will react with active fluoride chemistry.
Brazing & Joining · step 7
Post-braze cleaning & passivation
- Nitric and citric acidPassivation of stainless steel, restoring the chromium oxide layer after brazing.
- Alkaline cleanersBulk residue and oil removal before passivation.
- Descaling acidsHeat scale and oxide removal on parts brazed in air.
- Corrosion inhibitorsProtection between cleaning and assembly or coating.
- Deionized waterFinal rinse, where residual conductivity is the acceptance test.
Welding Consumables · step 1
Mineral raw material preparation
- Rutile and ilmeniteTitania sources controlling arc stability, slag fluidity, and bead appearance.
- Silica and feldsparSlag formers and viscosity control across the whole consumable range.
- FluorsparFluoride source lowering slag basicity effects, and the primary hydrogen control tool in basic consumables.
- Calcium carbonateGas shielding through decomposition, plus basicity contribution in low hydrogen coatings.
- Magnesia, alumina and wollastoniteSlag chemistry and detachability control.
- Talc and micaExtrusion aids and plasticity in electrode coatings.
Welding Consumables · step 2
Binder systems & agglomeration
- Sodium silicateThe primary binder, chosen by modulus and solids for extrusion and agglomeration behavior.
- Potassium silicateArc stability contribution on alternating current, plus different moisture behavior.
- Lithium silicateSpecialty binder where moisture pickup has to be minimized.
- Process waterBinder dilution and mix consistency, where hardness affects silicate stability.
- ClaysGreen strength and extrusion behavior in coating mixes.
Welding Consumables · step 3
Submerged arc flux
- FluorsparBasicity and hydrogen control, the single most important lever on weld metal toughness.
- Manganese oxide and silicaSlag formers controlling viscosity, detachability, and bead shape.
- Alumina and magnesiaRefractory slag components setting melting range.
- FerroalloysFerromanganese, ferrosilicon, and ferrotitanium delivering alloy recovery into the weld pool.
- Sodium and potassium silicateBinder for agglomerated flux, which is where moisture control begins.
Welding Consumables · step 4
Stick electrode coatings
- CelluloseGas generating coating for deep penetration pipe welding electrodes.
- RutileSmooth arc, easy strike, and excellent bead appearance in general purpose electrodes.
- Calcium carbonate and fluorsparThe basic low hydrogen system delivering weld metal toughness and crack resistance.
- Iron powderDeposition rate and recovery in high efficiency electrodes.
- Sodium and potassium silicateExtrusion binder and arc stabilizer.
- Talc, mica and claysExtrusion lubricity, letting the coating go on concentrically at speed.
Welding Consumables · step 5
Flux-cored & metal-cored wire
- Rutile fill systemsFast freezing slag for all position welding, the largest volume category.
- Fluorspar and basic fillsLow hydrogen basic wires where toughness and crack resistance drive the specification.
- FerroalloysAlloy delivery and deoxidation from inside the wire.
- Iron powderMetal cored wires trading slag for deposition rate.
- Potassium and sodium compoundsArc stabilizers keeping the arc smooth at low current.
Welding Consumables · step 6
Ancillaries & anti-spatter
- Silicone and silicone free anti-spatterSurface treatment preventing spatter adhesion. Silicone free is mandatory anywhere the part gets painted.
- Vegetable oil based systemsLower VOC anti-spatter for enclosed shops.
- Nozzle gels and tip dipsProtect consumable contact tips and nozzles from spatter buildup.
- SolventsCarrier and evaporation rate control in sprayed formulations.
- Corrosion inhibitorsProtect cleaned weldments between fabrication and coating.
Welding Consumables · step 7
Moisture control & storage
- DesiccantsPackage and holding oven moisture control on low hydrogen product.
- Vapor corrosion inhibitorsProtect wire and rod surfaces in long term storage.
- Hermetic packaging materialsBarrier packaging that maintains as-manufactured moisture levels.
- Rebaking supportControlled reconditioning of electrodes that have been exposed.
Molten Metal & Foundry · step 1
Charge melting & cover flux
- Sodium chloride and potassium chlorideThe salt system forming a low melting molten cover that excludes air from the bath.
- CryoliteFluoride addition improving the flux's ability to wet and separate oxide from metal.
- Fluoride saltsBreak the oxide film so entrapped metal droplets coalesce and return to the bath.
- Carbon and charcoal coverReducing cover for copper and brass melting.
- Borax and boric acidGlass forming cover flux in copper alloy and precious metal melting.
Molten Metal & Foundry · step 2
Drossing & cleaning fluxes
- Sodium and potassium nitrateExothermic oxidizers generating localized heat so trapped metal drains back into the bath.
- Sodium sulfateExothermic contribution and dross conditioning to a dry, powdery, low metal skim.
- Fluoride saltsBreak the metal to oxide bond so separation actually occurs.
- Chloride salt baseCarrier system delivering the actives across the bath surface.
- Wall cleaning fluxesRemove built-up oxide from furnace walls and hearth, restoring capacity.
Molten Metal & Foundry · step 3
Degassing & hydrogen removal
- Degassing tablets and granular fluxesGenerate gas bubbles in the melt that collect and remove dissolved hydrogen.
- Nitrogen and argonRotary degassing gas, now the dominant method on high volume operations.
- Chloride salt fluxesCombined degassing and cleaning where rotary equipment is not installed.
- Fluoride additionsImprove bubble distribution and inclusion flotation during the degas cycle.
Molten Metal & Foundry · step 4
Grain refinement & modification
- Titanium boron master alloysGrain refinement in aluminum, nucleating a fine equiaxed structure.
- Strontium master alloysSilicon modification in aluminum silicon alloys, giving fibrous rather than acicular silicon.
- Sodium salt modifiersLower cost modification with a shorter effective fade time.
- Phosphorus additionsPrimary silicon refinement in hypereutectic alloys.
- Cover fluxProtects the treated bath while modification holds.
Molten Metal & Foundry · step 5
Alkali & magnesium removal
- Chlorine and chloride saltsReact with magnesium to form removable magnesium chloride.
- Magnesium chloride fluxControlled demagging with better handling characteristics than gas chlorination.
- Fluoride fluxesAlkali metal removal, particularly sodium and lithium.
- Cover saltsBath protection during a treatment that agitates the surface heavily.
Molten Metal & Foundry · step 6
Steel ladle metallurgy
- LimeThe base of every synthetic ladle slag, driving desulfurization capacity.
- Calcium aluminatePre-fused synthetic slag with a low melting point, forming a working slag fast.
- FluorsparSlag fluidity, letting the slag actually do its job at ladle temperatures.
- Aluminum and ferrosiliconDeoxidation, without which desulfurization does not proceed.
- Calcium carbide and magnesiumHot metal desulfurization ahead of the converter.
- Tundish and ladle coversInsulation and reoxidation protection between ladle and mold.
Molten Metal & Foundry · step 7
Continuous casting mold powder
- Wollastonite and cristobaliteBase minerals setting melting behavior and viscosity of the liquid slag film.
- Soda ash and fluorsparFlux components controlling melting point and crystallization behavior.
- Carbon black and graphiteMelting rate control, giving the powder its characteristic layered melting profile.
- Glass fritPre-fused component delivering consistent melting behavior.
- Alumina and magnesiaViscosity and inclusion absorption capacity.
Molten Metal & Foundry · step 8
Copper, brass & precious metal
- Borax and boric acidGlass forming cover flux protecting the bath and absorbing oxide.
- SilicaSlag former and viscosity control in copper alloy melting.
- Phosphor copperDeoxidizer removing dissolved oxygen before casting.
- Charcoal coverReducing atmosphere over the melt.
- Fluoride fluxesOxide dissolution and metal recovery from skims.
Glass, Frit & Ceramic · step 1
Batch fluxing agents
- Soda ashThe primary flux in commercial glass, dropping melting temperature dramatically at the largest tonnage of any batch material.
- PotashAlternative alkali giving a longer working range, used in specialty and tableware glass.
- Lithium carbonatePowerful flux at low addition, improving melting rate and reducing viscosity at temperature.
- Feldspar and nepheline syeniteDeliver alumina and alkali together, improving durability while still fluxing.
- Calcium and magnesium carbonateStabilizers preventing the soda from making a water soluble glass.
Glass, Frit & Ceramic · step 2
Borate systems
- Borax pentahydrateThe workhorse borate source, lower water content than decahydrate so less energy goes to driving off moisture.
- Borax decahydrateUsed where dissolution behavior and handling favor the higher hydrate.
- Boric acidBoron source without the sodium, which matters when the alkali balance is already set.
- Anhydrous boraxMaximum boron per unit weight and no water to remove in the furnace.
- ColemaniteCalcium borate mineral delivering boron and calcium in one addition.
Glass, Frit & Ceramic · step 3
Fining & refining
- Sodium sulfateThe standard fining agent, decomposing at temperature to release gas that sweeps small bubbles out.
- Sodium nitrateOxidizer supporting fining and controlling redox state and color.
- CarbonReducing agent balancing the redox condition of the melt.
- Antimony and cerium compoundsHigh temperature fining in specialty and technical glass.
- FluorsparFluidity and fining aid, subject to emissions constraints.
Glass, Frit & Ceramic · step 4
Frit manufacture & milling
- Alkali and borate batch materialsThe smelt charge, where consistency matters more than any single specification.
- DeflocculantsMilling efficiency and slip rheology in wet milled frit systems.
- Carboxymethyl celluloseSuspension and binding in milled frit slips and glazes.
- Grinding aidsThroughput and particle size distribution control in dry milling.
- Process waterQuench and mill water, where dissolved solids affect slip behavior.
Glass, Frit & Ceramic · step 5
Glaze & enamel fluxing
- Zinc oxidePowerful flux improving gloss and broadening the firing range at mid temperature.
- Barium and strontium carbonateFluxes producing distinctive matte and satin surfaces.
- Lithium carbonateStrong flux at low addition, lowering thermal expansion at the same time.
- Bismuth compoundsLead replacement in low temperature and decorative fluxes.
- Suspension agents and bindersGlaze slip stability, application behavior, and green strength before firing.
Glass, Frit & Ceramic · step 6
Porcelain enamel
- Cobalt and nickel oxideAdherence promoters creating the metallurgical bond between enamel and steel.
- Borax and boric acidPrimary fluxes in ground coat and cover coat frits.
- Clay and electrolytesMill additions controlling slip suspension and application weight.
- Magnesium carbonate and potassium chlorideElectrolyte set controlling slip rheology and set behavior.
- Pickling and neutralizing chemistrySteel surface preparation, which determines adherence more than the frit does.
Glass, Frit & Ceramic · step 7
Low melting & sealing glass
- Bismuth oxideThe primary lead replacement in low temperature sealing glass.
- Vanadium compoundsVery low temperature sealing systems for sensitive assemblies.
- Zinc oxideExpansion and flow adjustment in sealing frit formulation.
- Borate systemsMelting range control at the low end.
- Filler additionsExpansion matching to the substrates being joined.